Journal is indexed in following databases:
- SCOPUS
- Web of Science Core Collection - Journal Citation Reports
- EBSCOhost
- Directory of Open Access Journals
- TRID Database - Transportation Research Board
- Index Copernicus Journals Master List
- BazTech
- Google Scholar
2023 Journal Impact Factor - 0.7
2023 CiteScore - 1.4
ISSN 2083-6473
ISSN 2083-6481 (electronic version)
Editor-in-Chief
Associate Editor
Prof. Tomasz Neumann
Published by
TransNav, Faculty of Navigation
Gdynia Maritime University
3, John Paul II Avenue
81-345 Gdynia, POLAND
e-mail transnav@umg.edu.pl
Analysis and Optimisation of Best Practice for Proper Lookout at Night
1 Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
ABSTRACT: A significant proportion of accidents appear to be caused by a lack of maintaining a ‘proper lookout’ on a ship’s bridge. The root cause for these accidents could be the result of watchkeeper’s lack of awareness of requirements to maintain a proper lookout. This paper utilises the authors’ proposed definition of this term and then discusses the outputs from a study on improving watchkeeper behaviour carried out in ship bridge simulators, using eye tracking devices. The study involves applying the proposed method of carrying out visual search scans together with underlining distractions caused by Multifunction Displays (MFDs) found on modern ship bridges. Based on the findings, the paper evaluates the impact of the proposed scan method for maintaining a proper lookout, reduction in distractions caused by MFDs and discusses how it is almost impossible to achieve a complete dark adaptation with the presence of MFDs and other lighting on modern ship bridges. This research offers a solution to control these risks through risk assessment, together with training and education for watchkeepers to overcome these issues. This study is expected to contribute significantly to improving watchkeeper’s behaviour in maintaining lookout and application of the proposed scan method.
KEYWORDS: Officer of the Watch (OOW), Maritime Training, Marine Safety Improvements, STCW, International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, Graphical User Interface (GUI), Multifunction Displays (MFDs), Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB)
REFERENCES
AMSA (2020) Reducing the risk of collisions at sea. Marine Notice 06/2020. [Online] Available at: https://www.amsa.gov.au/about/regulations-and-standards/062020-reducing-risk-collisions-sea] [Accessed: 3rd January 2022].
AOA (2012) American Optometric Association: The Eye and Night Vision. [Online] Available at: http://www.aoa.org/x5352.xml] [Accessed: 26th Dec 2022].
Biswas, P., Jeevithashree, D. V., (2018) Eye gaze controlled MFD for military aviation. International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces Proceedings IUI (pp. 79–89). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, United States. DOI: 10.1145/3172944.3172973. - doi:10.1145/3172944.3172973
Boyce, P. R. (2003) Human Factors in Lighting. Taylor & Francis, London. - doi:10.1201/9780203426340
Burack, J. A., Dawkins, T., Stewart, J., Flores, H., Larocci, G. Russo, N. (2012) Chapter Six - “The Mysterious Myth of Attention Deficit…” Revisited: A Discussion of How the Developmental Approach is Transforming the Understanding of Intellectual Disability, Editor(s): International Review of Research in Developmental Disabilities, Vol. 42, ISSN 2211-6095, DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-394284-5.00006-1. - doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-394284-5.00006-1
Chauvin, C., Lardjane, S., Morel, G., Clostermann, J. P., Langard, B. (2013) Human and organisational factors in maritime accidents: Analysis of collisions at sea using the HFACS. Accident Analysis and Prevention. Vol. 59, pp. 26–37. - doi:10.1016/j.aap.2013.05.006
Chirp (2017) Perception, Decision Making and Fatigue at Sea. CHIRP Maritime, Bishops Printers, Portsmouth.
Crowch, T. (2013) Navigating the Human Element. MLB Publishing: Kent, UK.
Dodt, E. (1967) Purkinje-shift in the rod eye of the bush-baby, Galago Crassicaudatus. Vision Research. 7 (7–8): 509–517. DOI: 10.1016/0042-6989(67)90060-0. - doi:10.1016/0042-6989(67)90060-0
EMSA (2022) European Maritime Safety Agency: Annual Overview of Marine Casualties and Incidents 2022. European Maritime Safety Agency, Lisbon, Portugal.
Endsley, M. R. (1995a) Measurement of situation awareness in dynamic systems. Human Factors, Vol. 37(1), pp. 65–84. - doi:10.1518/001872095779049499
Endsley, M. R. (1995b) Towards a theory of situation awareness in dynamic systems. Human Factors, vol. 37(1), pp. 32–64. - doi:10.1518/001872095779049543
Endsley, M. R. (2009) Situation Awareness Analysis and Measurement. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Taylor & Francis e-Library. London, UK.
FAA (2012) Federal Aviation Authority: Pilot Vision brochure 17-2021. Available at: https://www.faa.gov/pilots/safety/pilotsafetybrochures/media/pilot_vision.pdf [Accessed: 14th June 2021].
FAA (2015) Scanning for Other Aircraft. Aeronautical Information Manual, 8-1-6-c. Oklahoma City, OK (page 553, 8-1-6 section c).
Forchhammer, S., Korhonen, J., Mantel, C. Shu, X., Wu, X. (2016) Chapter 13 - HDR Display Characterization and Modeling, Academic Press, 2016, Pages 347-369, ISBN 9780081004128, DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-100412-8.00013-9. - doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-100412-8.00013-9
Helmenstine, A. M. (2020) The Visible Spectrum: Wavelengths and Colors. [Online] Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/understand-the-visible-spectrum-608329] [Accessed: 28th December 2022].
Hofheimer, J. A. (eds.) (2020) Neuropsychological Assessment. In: Encyclopaedia of Infant and Early Childhood Development (Second Edition). Chapel Hill, USA: Elsevier. pp. 396-410. - doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809324-5.05854-5
Hrvoje, J, Pero, V., Vuksa, S., Pavic, I. (2021) Situational Awareness – Key Safety Factor for the Officer of the Watch. Pedagogika-Pedagogy. Vol. 93. DOI: 10.53656/ped21-7s.20situ. - doi:10.53656/ped21-7s.20situ
IHO (2014) Specifications for Chart Content and Display Aspects of ECDIS – Publication S-52. International Hydrographic Organization, Monaco.
IMO (1978) International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) Code 1978 (as amended).
IMO (1995a) Performance Standards for Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPAs). Resolution MSC 823(19). London, United Kingdom.
IMO (1995b) Performance Standards for Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems (ECDIS). Resolution MSC 817(19). London, United Kingdom.
IMO (1996) Adoption of New and Amended Performance Standards (Includes IBS). Resolution MSC 64(67). London, United Kingdom.
IMO (2000) MSC/Circ.982 - Guidelines on Ergonomic Criteria for Bridge Equipment and Layout. IMO, London.
IMO (2004) Adoption of the Revised Performance Standards for Radar Equipment. Resolution MSC.192(79). London, United Kingdom.
IMO (2006) Adoption of The Revised Performance Standards for Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems (ECDIS). Resolution MSC 232(82). London, United Kingdom.
IMO (2017) ECDIS – Guidance for Good Practice. MSC.1/Circ.1503. London, United Kingdom.
Jackson, G. R., Owsley, C. McGwin, G. Jr. (1999) Aging and dark adaptation. Vision Res. Vol. 39 (23): pp. 3975–3982. DOI:10.1016/s0042-6989(99)00092-9. PMID 10748929. - doi:10.1016/S0042-6989(99)00092-9
Jain, A., Bansal, R., Kumar, A., Singh, K. D. (2015) A comparative study of visual and auditory reaction times on the basis of gender and physical activity levels of medical first year students. International journal of applied & basic medical research. Vol. 5(2), pp. 124–127. - doi:10.4103/2229-516X.157168
Kazilek, C. J., Coope, K. (2010) Rods and Cones. Ask A Biologist. [Online] Available at: https://askabiologist.asu.edu/rods-and-cones [Accessed: 30th December 2022].
Khalique, A., Bury, A. (2022). Scanning: from screen to scene: Using the ‘windscreen wiper’ technique to maintain a proper lookout by sight. Featured Article, Seaways: The International Journal of the Nautical Institute, November 2022 [Online] Available at: https://www.nautinst.org/resources-page/scanning-from-screen-to-scene.html [Accessed: 31st December 2022]
Khalique, A., Bury, A., Blanco-Davis, E. (2023a) The Maritime Six Pack: Lookout Awareness of Distractions through Creation of a Distraction Evaluation Ratio. Journal of Navigation. Manuscript in press.
Khalique, A., Bury, A., Blanco-Davis, E. (2023b) Utilising state of the art eye tracking equipment to improve outcomes for maritime watchkeeper’s on nocturnal navigational watches. 10th International Conference on Human Interaction and Emerging Technologies (IHIET 2023) to be held in Nice, France, August 22-24, 2023. Manuscript in press. - doi:10.54941/ahfe1004045
Koffskey, C. M. (2014) Using eye-tracking to investigate strategy and performance of expert and novice control room operators. LSU Master’s Thesis. Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College. [Online] Available at: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4352&context=gradschool_theses [Accessed 30/12/2022]
Kolb, H., Fernandez, E., Nelson, R. (1995) The Organization of the Retina and Visual System. Salt Lake City (UT): University of Utah Health Sciences Center; [Online] Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11525/] [Accessed: 29th December 2022].
Lamb, T. D., Pugh, Jr. E. N. (2004) Dark adaptation and the retinoid cycle of vision. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research, Vol. 23(3), pp. 307-380, ISSN 1350-9462, DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2004.03.001. - doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2004.03.001
Lavie, N. (2010) Attention, Distraction, and Cognitive Control Under Load. Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 19(3), pp. 143–148. DOI: 10.1177/0963721410370295. - doi:10.1177/0963721410370295
Lutzhoft, M. H. (2004) The technology is great when it works. Maritime technology and human integration on the ship's bridge. PhD Thesis. Linköpings Universitet. Linköping Studies in Science and Technology.
Lutzhoft, M. H., Grech, M. (2016) Challenges and Opportunities in User Centric Shipping: Developing a Human Centred Approach for Navigation Systems, Launceston: ACM.
Maglic, Lo., Valcic, S., Gundic, A. Maglic, Li. (2020) Voice Communication Systems Impact on Navigating Officers. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. Vol. 8. DOI:10.3390/jmse8030197. - doi:10.3390/jmse8030197
MAIB (2004) Bridge Watchkeeping Safety Study. Southampton: Marine Accident Investigation Branch.
MAIB (2012) Report on the investigation of the grounding of Karin Schepers. Report No. 10-2012. Southampton, UK.
MCA (2006) MGN 315 – Keeping a Safe Navigational Watch on Merchant Vessels. Maritime & Coastguard Agency. Southampton, UK.
Merwe, V. D., Zon, R., Dijk, H. V. (2012) Eye Movements as an Indicator of Situation Awareness in a Flight Simulator Experiment. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology. Vol. 22, pp. 78-95. DOI: 10.1080/10508414.2012.635129. - doi:10.1080/10508414.2012.635129
Moreton, M. B. M. (2000) Human Factors on Ship's Bridge Design - PhD Thesis. Liverpool John Moores University.
Nave, C. R. (2016) Hyper Physics: Light and Vision. [Online] Available at: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vision/visioncon.html] [Accessed: 27th December 2022]
Nigalye, A. K., Hess, k., Oundlik, S. J., Jeffrey, B. G. Cukras, C. A. Husain, D. (2022) Dark Adaptation and Its Role in Age-Related Macular Degeneration, Journal of Clinical Medicine. DOI: 10.3390/jcm11051358 - doi:10.3390/jcm11051358
Norris, A. (2015) Integrity and the Aid to Navigation. The Navigator, October 2015.
Polishchuk, O. V., Tykhanova, O. (2022) Biophysical aspects of electromagnetic theory of human vision perception of light information in the visible range. Ukrainian Neurosurgical Journal. Vol. 28. pp. 17-24. - doi:10.25305/unj.246926
Rabia, R. Rizvi, S. S., Riaz, F., Shokat, S. (2018) Designing of Cell Coverage in Light Fidelity. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications. 9. 10.14569/IJACSA.2018.090308. - doi:10.14569/IJACSA.2018.090308
Rosenbaum, D. A. (2010) Human Motor Control (Second Edition): Chapter 6 - Looking. Academic Press. ISBN 9780123742261. - doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-374226-1.00006-1
Rothblum, A. M. (2000) Human Error and Marine Safety, National Safety Council Congress and Expo, Orlando.
Salmon, T. O., Pol, C. V. D., Rash, C. E. (2009) Helmet mounted Displays: Ch 7 - Visual Function. [Online] Available at: https://usaarl.health.mil/assets/docs/hmds/Section-14-Chapter-7-Visual-Function.pdf] [Accessed: 31st December 2022].
Schubert, E. F. (2006) Light Emitting Diodes, Second edition. Cambridge University Press. Online ISBN:9780511790546 DOI: DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511790546. - doi:10.1017/CBO9780511790546
Simons, D. J., Chabris, C. F. (1999) Gorillas in our midst: Sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events. Perception, Vol. 28(9). pp. 1059–1074. - doi:10.1068/p281059
Stangor, C., Walinga, J. (2014) Introduction to Psychology. 1st Edition. Victoria, Canada. [Online] Available at: https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/ [Accessed: 15th September 2021].
Taylor, D. (1991) An Analysis of Visual Watchkeeping. Journal of Navigation, Vol. 44(2), pp. 152-158 - doi:10.1017/S0373463300009899
TCAD (1998) Ryan TCAD (Traffic Collision Alerting Device) 9900: Pilot's Handbook Manual. Revision 3. Ohio: Ryan International Corporation.
Treisman, A. M., Gelade, G. (1980) A feature-integration theory of attention. Cogn Psychol. Vol. 12(1), pp. 97–136. DOI: 10.1016/0010-0285(80)90005-5. - doi:10.1016/0010-0285(80)90005-5
Vishteh, R. A., Mirzjani, A., Jafarzadepour, E., Darvishpour, S. (2019) Evaluation of Simple Visual Reaction Time of Different Colored Light Stimuli in Visually Normal Students. Clinical Optometry. Vol. (11), pp.167-171. - doi:10.2147/OPTO.S236328
Williams, D. E. (2020) Human Factors in Air Transport Understanding Behavior and Performance in Aviation. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
Wynn, T., Howarth, P., Kunze, B. (2012) Night-time Lookout Duty: The Role of Ambient Light Levels and Dark Adaptation. Journal of Navigation. DOI: 10.1017/S0373463312000288. - doi:10.1017/S0373463312000288
Citation note:
Khalique A., Bury A., Loughney S.: Analysis and Optimisation of Best Practice for Proper Lookout at Night. TransNav, the International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, Vol. 18, No. 2, doi:10.12716/1001.18.02.12, pp. 357-367, 2024
Authors in other databases:
Abdul Khalique:
57226134994
Syyz1a8AAAAJ
57226134994
Syyz1a8AAAAJ
Alan Bury:
File downloaded 274 times
