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1 INTRODUCTION
After various serious migrant incidents in the
Mediterranean Sea in the past years, search and
rescue at sea has gained high political attention.
(Dijstelbloem, van Reekum & Schinkel, 2017; Cuttitta,
2018; Cusumano, 2018)
The world's most dangerous migrant routes pass
through the Mediterranean Sea. Many of these
attempts where migrants want to cross the sea have
been tragically ended. The Mediterranean Sea is a
‘maritime cemetery’. In 2011, according to UNHCR’s
statistics, more than 1 500 migrants drown or gone
missing trying to cross the Mediterranean Sea
(Wilkes, ed. Dobbs, 2012). As noted by Brian and
Laczko (2014, p. 11): “according to the International
Organization for Migration (IOM), in 2014, up to 3,072
migrants are believed to have died in the
Mediterranean, compared with an estimate of 700 in
2013”. In 2015, over one million migrants crossed the
Mediterranean Sea to reach Europe. In 2016 only,
more than 5000 migrants lost their lives in the
Mediterranean Sea (Cusumano, 2018). During 2017, at
least 3,119 persons died or went missing in the
Mediterranean Sea (Albahari, 2018). According to
data reports by the International Organization for
Migration (IOM), from January to August 2018, 60,309
migrants and refugees have entered Europe by sea
and 1,524 people lost their lives on the Mediterranean
Sea (International Ogranization for Migration – IOM,
August 2018).
The scale of the flows reached previously unseen
levels in 2014 and 2015, as did the number of deaths
(UNHCR 2015). In response to the high flows across
the Mediterranean, policy has prioritized search and
rescue operations and the establishment of maritime
patrols.
Migrants crossing Mediterranean Sea: “face the
risk of injury and death relating to the nature of the
overseas journey, increasingly dangerous smuggling
practices, and in some cases, risky rescue operations”
(Fatal Journeys, Improving Data on Missing Migrants,
Saving Migrants From The Sea: Improving Training For
Search And Rescue Operations
S. Radojević & M. Kresojević
University of Defence, Military Academy, Belgrade, Serbia
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a research in the field of maritime training and education for Search and
Rescue (SAR) migrants at sea. This research is oriented to more effective method based on team training for
SAR Operations utilizing ship simulation and process of Operational Planning. The training which conducts in
cabinets and ship simulators at the Military Academy provides the best results in the optimal application of
onboard and emergency/SAR procedures. The training method is in line with all conventions of the
International Maritime Organization and models of maritime training courses. The proposed training method
can be developed and applied in all schools and centers where seafarers and other Maritime Search and Rescue
personnel are trained.
http://www.transnav.eu
the
International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea T
ransportation
Volume 14
Number 1
March 2020
DOI:
10.12716/1001.14.01.15
130
2017). It often happens that many ships and boats
during migrants and refugees’ transportation occur
shipwreck in the Mediterranean Sea. It happens
especially because the total number of the lifesaving
equipment that is standardized in relation to the
capacity of the crew and passengers is not in comply
with the regulation.
There are a lot of initiatives and projects for
proactive approach to improve safety of migrants and
shipwreck problem in the Mediterranean Sea
(Tazzioli, 2015; Stierl, 2016). Numerous international
and regional organizations are involved in solving
this problem of migrants at sea, such as UN, IOM, EU,
OSCE, UNHCR etc. Analyzing the data and the huge
fluctuation of people who are being transported,
especially the large number of victims, important
segment of this training is a proper approach and
knowledge of all techniques and prescribed measures
for SAR operations.
Members of the Armed Forces of the Republic of
Serbia actively participate in the EUNAVFOR
Operation Atalanta in the Indian Ocean, while
participation in the EUNAVFOR MED Operation
Sophia is also planned. The aim of Operation Sophia
is to control maritime migrant routes through the
Mediterranean Sea, as well as to suppress the
smuggling people and help shipwreckers. Increased
frequency of migrant maritime accidents limited the
possibilities for exploiting search and rescue forces.
Saving life at sea is as old as sailing. From the first
experiences and accidents that happened during the
sailing, people have developed different rescue
techniques, gained knowledge of favorable and
unfavorable aspects of rescue and environmental
condition, the functioning of the human organism and
means of lifesaving (Radojević, 2013).
2 MARITIME TRAINING AT THE SERBIAN
MILITARY ACADEMY
Serbian Military Academy has heritage and tradition
of education and training personnel for maritime and
inland navigation. Military Academy has adopted
and developed educational and training program
against piracy applying all the provisions and
recommendations of the IMO conventions and IMO
model courses (Šoškić, Ćurčić & Radojević, 2011). A
good example of this training course is the training of
the Serbian Autonomous Vessel Protection
Detachment that is deployed to the WFP vessels in EU
Operation Atalanta (Šoškić, Radojević and Komazec,
2014).
Although we have training program which is
elaborated, after every mission feedback received
from participants is thoroughly analyzed, in order to
further improve development. The feedback is crucial
for each of the subsequent courses. Requests for new
training of Serbian AVPD team were directed to
enhancement number of classes for personal and
collective safety and security at sea and training on
ship simulator.
Our research is focused on improving the quality
of the maritime training and educational process of
training cadets, officers and NCO Serbian Armed
forces and River flotilla in SAR at sea. Military
Academy has developed a unique maritime training
for people who are engaged in SAR Operations at sea.
Benefits for the Ministry of Defence would be
preferable maritime training for Serbian military staff
for participation in maritime operation.
3 TRAINING METHOD FOR SEARCH AND
RESCUE OPERATIONS
Based on the risks related to maritime accidents, as
well as the dangers that may affect shipwrecks, a
systematic training method is developed for
personnel who may engage in SAR operations. The
training method is based on theoretical knowledge
and knowledge of the human organism, experience
acquired in practice, as well as the provisions of the
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
(SOLAS), and in particular the International
Convention on Standards of Training, Certification
and Watchkeeping for Saefarers, 1978, as amended
1995 - STCW 78/95 and STCW 10 of Manila (SOLAS,
2009 & STCW, 2010).
The conducted research focuses exclusively on the
operational-tactical simulator based training for SAR
operations at sea without going into other aspects of
the migrant issue. Projecting and development of
operational-tactical training method based on SAR
operation at sea uses ship simulator laboratory and
other facilities at the Military academy with cadets
participated in the training exercises. Developed
training method is based on procedures according to
SOLAS and IAMSAR and execution of operational
planning on ship's bridge simulator in SAR operation
at sea.
In accordance with the requirements of MERSAR
and IAMSAR international conventions the instructor
has to create search and rescue situation at the
Mediterranean Sea on ship simulator. Simulators
enable the full-scope of search and rescue operations
training as per the IAMSAR manual (IAMSAR
Manual, 2016). Modelling of situation for rescue
migrants at sea, as well as of the communications,
allows training in their use and in the coordination of
the search and rescue operations in the most adverse
weather conditions. Training scenario cover different
hazards and risks at sea. Ships or boats in disaster do
not have lifesaving appliances, have inadequate or
insufficient lifesaving appliances.
Rescuing represents a very delicate stage of
shipwrecks and, as mentioned, at this stage a
shipwreck is threatened by multiple risks. Risks that
may appear during a shipwreck are widespread:
injuries on board, which can be mechanical and
thermal; drowning; choking in oil, grease and other
dangerous liquids that come from damaged tanks;
burns of inflammable liquids, spilled over the sea
surface; danger of cold or heat, etc. Understanding the
conditions in which the shipwreck finds itself is an
important prerequisite for a successful rescue
(Radojević & Milinkov, 2018). Actually, according to
Guide to Recovery Techniques, all seafarers and
vessels may suddenly be involved in to recover
people in distress at sea (Guide to Recovery
Techniques, 2014).
131
In accordance with above mentioned, SAR
situation created by instructor was given to trainee as
an exercise. The baseline of the planning of the SAR
operation is SMEAC system (Situation, Mission,
Execution, Administration and Logistics, Command,
Control and Communication), which they use to
document their orders and instructions for operation
(U.S. Coast Guard Emergency Management Manual
Volume I, 2019). Using SMEAC Operating procedures
is crucial for search and rescue operations at sea
(Maritime Search and Rescue Service Implementation
Guide, 2017).
In simulated conditions, trainees are given the task
of finding migrant boat in distress or migrants who
have experienced shipwreck. A group of 9 trainee
participate in decisions making process based on data
and procedures (Figure 1). Training method includes
incident data analysis about: details that lead to
shipwrecks; distance of the accident site from SAR
units; the number of people in distress;
hydrometeorological conditions; the dangers that
endanger life in the rescue phase; personal and
collective lifesaving appliances; swimming in rescue
conditions and in conditions of a turbulent sea, and in
conditions with a fire on the sea surface; boarding the
raft or boat and use of available equipment; first aid
with the cardiopulmonary resuscitation at every
situation: in the water, in a boat, on a raft; as well as
the survival methods at sea in different conditions
and different areas (Radojević & Milinkov, 2018;)
(Małyszko, Wielgosz, 2016).
DATA ANALYSIS
DECISION MAKING
DECISION
SAVING
Yes
Not
SAR ACTION
Figure 1. SAR incident – migrant saving
The most important thing in SAR operation is time
from the moment of receiving the signal to the rescue
of the shipwreck. For the calculation of the time, the
formula (1) shown below can be used.
lsrdmt
tt
V
D
ttt ≤++++
(1)
t
t
- time from shipwreck to signal reception (in
modern age that is approximately two minutes),
dm
t
- time for decision making (approximately ten
minutes),
r
t
- time to equip with the necessary lifesaving
appliance (approximately thirty minutes),
VD
- time it takes to get to the shipwrecks
s
t
- time needed to rescue the shipwrecked
(approximately five minutes),
l
t
- time during which shipwreckers could stay alive
in water (there are tables with a calculated survival
time in waters of different temperatures). This is
control time for the successful completion of the ship
simulator task.
Trainee uses survival times presented in curves or
tables as a function of water temperature, e.g. the
classic Molnar survival curve (Molnar, 1946) and the
water immersion survival table in the book Essentials
of Sea Survival by Golden and Tipton (2002). Most
important weather conditions are swell, wind
strength, wind direction, waves, temperature,
precipitation and visibility. In particular, water
temperature and physiological status of the victims is
most important due to rescue operation and surviving
at sea (Xu, X., Turner, C. A., & Santee, W. R. 2011). As
one can realize, it is very important that decision is
made quickly, and by the control time we can
evaluate success of simulation.
Also trainees analyze procedures for recovering
persons from water. The importance of proper and
timely preparation on board is invaluable for the
successful implementation of rescue. This include a
series of preparations: line for survival boats and
craft; gantry crane and cargo net for recovery of
survivors; pilot ladders and manropes to assist
survivors boarding the vessel; vessel's lifeboats; line-
throwing apparatus; floodlights if recovery at night,
and preparation of stretchers and first aid boxes for
survivors requiring medical assistance (IAMSAR
Manual, 2016).
Decision for SAR operation which is made by
trainee is checked on the Ship bridge simulator. The
simulation exercise is carried out in three groups of 3
trainees each: first group (3 members of the bridge
team comprising the Captain, navigator and one
assistant), second group on navigation paper chart
and third group on GMDSS (Global Maritime Distress
and Safety System) simulator.
The exercise consists of interconnected activities
that are very important for successful rescue of people
at sea and emergency response. During the exercise,
trainees are practicing in the procedure of
shipwreckers in the fire at sea surface and when
shipwreckers is in the water outside the collective
lifesaving appliances. International Aeronautical and
Maritime Search and Rescue Manual (IAMSAR
Manual) is a prerequisite for the launch of the search
132
and rescue action. Considering situation assessments
trainees select among the search and rescue patterns
and the techniques of finding shipwrecks in the sea
(IAMSAR Manual, 2016). Also, part of the training is
based on the coordination of search and rescue with
aircraft.
The training on the GMDSS simulator performing
communication on the proper procedures for
receiving calls and messages on the accident. Ships
that are in a course according to the position of a ship
in trouble are obliged to prepare for rescue both the
ship, as well as the people on it.
Simulation brings the opportunity to rehearse
complex SAR operations decisions. The trainees not
only can learn SAR professional skills and
procedures, but also can deeply understand SAR
environment adverseness and SAR urgency (Xiuwen,
Fangbing & Yicheng, 2009). Also this simulator based
training reflects upon the training experience in the
debriefing session that follows the simulation run
(Baldauf, et al., 2015).
The synchronous recording and playback of the
event, the use of equipment and exchange on the air
are the most effective means for corrective training in
the search for human life at sea (TRANSAS, 2014).
Certainly, we should be aware of the fact that this
simulator based training method cannot replace
conventional real ship practical training. As noted by
Xiuwen, Fangbing & Yicheng, (2009, p. 345): “the two
methods must complement each other to improve
training effect”.
4 CONCLUSION
Numerous shipwrecks have marked the history of
navigation, and despite substantial technological
progress, unfortunately they are also common
nowadays. The Mediterranean Sea is a ‘maritime
cemetery’, as many ships and boats during migrants’
transportation occur shipwreck. A large number of
human lives have been lost due to the lack of
knowledge of medical and technical aspects of rescue.
In this way, the best training is performed for future
crew members and embarked crewmen for the proper
procedures in the case of SAR at sea. Military
Academy has developed a unique training method for
people who are engaged in SAR at sea. Training
method for SAR operation at sea developed by using
simulator and Operational Planning. The essence of
this training is technical, as well as moral education in
lifesaving at sea. The research study found that the
developed method improves the training and learning
experience in rescue at sea. The proposed training
model can be developed and applied in all schools
and centers where seafarers, other nautical staff,
police and custom crew, pilots, search and rescue
personnel, students, and several non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) are trained in SAR at sea. The
Military Academy further develops a SAR model of
training to provide the highest quality knowledge
necessary for the successful performance of assigned
duties.
The Military Academy will continue supporting
the deployment of members of the armed forces in
such operations, and in cooperation with other
training centers, will perform the best possible
preparation of all members for future operations.
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