285
1 INTRODUCTION
Thegeneraldefinitionofthe termʺsafetyʺisusually
understoodasthe conditionofbeing protectedfrom
orunlikelytocausedanger,risk,orinjury[23].Inthe
other words, safety is a state in which hazards and
conditions leading to physical, psychological or
materialharmarecontrolled
inordertopreservethe
health and well‐being of individuals and the
community. It is an essential resource for everyday
life,neededbyindividualsandcommunitiestorealise
theiraspirations[30].Becauseofthecontext,thearea
it covers and the field in which it occurs there are
many
different definitions of safety. The concept of
safetyhasevolvedoverthecenturies,andinthelast
decadesofthetwentiethcentury,theimportancehas
changed significantly. Due to changes in marine
shipping and the international environment at the
turn of the eighties and nineties of the twentieth
century,specialattention
waspaidto theperception
of maritime and navigational safety. And before we
goontodiscussthesedefinitions,letʹsstartwiththe
definitionoffunctionalsafetyandsafetyintransport
ingeneral.
2 DEFINITIONOFSAFETYINTRANSPORTIN
GENERAL
Functional safety is a concept applicable across all
industrysectors.Itisfundamentaltotheenablingof
complextechnologyusedforsafety‐relatedsystems.It
providestheassurancethatthesafety‐relatedsystems
will offer the necessary risk reduction required to
achievesafetyfortheequipment.Butletʹsstartwitha
definitionof safety: Freedom from unacceptable risk
of physical injury or of damage to the health of
people, either directly, or indirectly as a result of
damagetopropertyortotheenvironment[12].
Functional safety is the part of the overall safety
that depends on a system or equipment operating
correctlyinresponsetoitsinputs.
Functionalsafetyis
the detection of a potentially dangerous condition
resultingintheactivationofaprotectiveorcorrective
device or mechanism to prevent hazardous events
arising or providing mitigation to reduce the
consequenceofthehazardousevent.
Transport safety can be defined in a number of
ways, including the official
World Health
Overview of Definitions of Maritime Safety, Safety at Sea,
Navigational Safety and Safety in General
K.Formela,T.Neumann&A.Weintrit
GdyniaMaritimeUniversity,Gdynia,Poland
ABSTRACT:Therearenumerousdiversepapersthathaveaddressedissueswithinmaritimesafety,safetyat
sea,navigationalsafetyandsafetyingeneral;todatetherehasbeennocomprehensivereviewofdefinitionsof
theseterms.Thispaperreviewedthedefinitionsonsafetyinthreekeyareas:
maritimesafety,safetyatseaand
navigationalsafety,andinterventionstomakenavigationandshippingsafer.Inthepapertheauthorsalsodeal
withissuesrelatedtoriskanalysisandriskmanagementinmaritimetransport.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 13
Number 2
June 2019
DOI:10.12716/1001.13.02.03
286
Organisation(WHO)safetydefinition‘freedomfrom
unacceptablerisk of harm’.Road safety is, however,
usuallydefinedinadifferentway.Saferoadtrafficis
characterised by the absence of crashes, injuries and
fatalities[35].
Forcommunityandfortheindividual,thelossof
health is the most serious effect of
crashes. It leads
bothtoseriouspersonalsufferingandtohugesocietal
lossesinmonetaryterms.Therefore,itisessentialto
stateatthisearlystagethatlossofhealthisthemain
road safety criterion. Convalescence and health
restoration have economic consequences as have
vehicledamageandlossof
vehiclesandgoods.
Transport safety may be influenced along many
separate dimensions and various models have been
usedinsafetymanagement[4,5]:
therearethreemainvariablesthatdecidetheroad
safety level in terms of health consequences:
exposure in traffic, risk of a crash given the
exposure,consequenceof
thecrash;
the health consequences of crashes may be
influencedbyactionstakenbeforethecrash(active
safety),duringthecrash(passivesafety),andpost‐
crash(rescue,treatment,rehabilitation);
mostofthecrashesaretriggeredbyhumanerrors,
sometimesintentionalbutnormallyunintentional.
There are three basic ways
to reduce the human
errors: selection of road users (for example,
licensing), improving road users (for example,
information, education, training, and
enforcement), adaptation of road and vehicle
engineeringsolutionstohumancharacteristicsand
limitations (make it easier to drive, to bicycle, to
walkintraffic).
3 SAFETYATSEA
Safetyat
seaisdefinitelythefirstthingseafarermust
bear in mind before starting his navigation. Itʹs a
known fact that sea can be disarmingly attractive in
one moment and already in other it can change its
deceptivenatureandturnintothebiggestnightmare
he has ever experienced. Anyone
who spent some
times at sea has probably felt it on his own skin.
Safety is therefore crucial, and the knowledge,
experience, skills and safety equipment mandatory
partofeveryseavoyage.
Safety first is the slogan that adorns the deck of
majority of merchant ships around the world. With
this
slogan in mind, the mission of each maritime
university, academy and training centre is to
permanentlypromotesafetyatsea.
These institutions remain a busy and important
forumforthewidershippingcommunityandinspite
of difficult economic conditions, technological
innovationcontinuestomoveforward,withobvious
implications for
safety at sea. One of the most
importantfactorsforensuringsafetyatseaiseffective
communicationtechnology,attheforefrontofwhich
aremodernsatelliteservices.
4 DEFINITIONSOFMARITIMESAFETY
Shippingis perhapsthe most internationalof allthe
worldʹs great industries‐and one of the most
dangerous.
It has always been recognized that the
bestwayofimprovingsafetyatseaisbydeveloping
international regulations that are followed by all
shippingnations.
IMOʹs first task when it came into being in 1959
was to adopt a new version of the International
ConventionfortheSafety
ofLifeatSea(SOLAS)[32],
the most important of all treaties dealing with
maritimesafety.IMOhasalsodevelopedandadopted
international collision regulations and global
standards for seafarers, as well as international
conventionsandcodesrelatingtosearchandrescue,
the facilitation of international maritime traffic, load
lines, the
carriage of dangerous goods and tonnage
measurement. Navigation regulations such as the
official regulations of the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) are an essential instrument for
safety in navigation [19]. The Maritime Safety
CommitteeisIMOʹs seniortechnical bodyon safety‐
relatedmatters.Itisaidedinitsworkby
anumberof
Sub‐Committees:
CarriageofCargoesandContainers(CCC),
Human Element, Training and Watchkeeping
(HTW),
ImplementationofIMOInstruments(III),
Navigation, Radio‐communication and Search &
Rescue(NCSR),
PollutionPreventionandResponse(PPR),
ShipDesignandConstruction(SDC),
ShipSystems&Equipment
(SSE).
The basic legal act regulating the safety of
navigationinPolandistheActof18August2011on
maritime safety [28]. Under this Act, the safety of
navigationisprovidedonmanylevelsby:
inspection of technical condition and safety
managementonshipsofPolishaffiliation,
safemanningofships,
controlofforeignshipscallingatPolishports,
certificationandcontrolofmarineequipment,
monitoringofvesseltraffic,
provision of navigational marking, hydro
meteorologicalprotectionand
communicationsatsea.
Maritime safety is defined as the safety of life,
health and property against
environmental and
operational risks associated with navigation [28].
Because it is a broad concept and its formulation
dependsonthecontextandtheindividualapproach,
universal definitions of maritime safety can include
thefollowing[3]:
freedomfromdanger,
norisk,thelevelofwhichcannotbe accepted,or
the lack of harm to human health (freedom from
unacceptableriskorpersonalharm),
nofinanciallosses.
Safety can be defined as the state of the marine
system(ship,person,surroundings)inwhichnoneof
itselementsforanygivenreasonthreatensanyother
element of the system.) In navigation,
the state of
dangeriscausedbyamaritimeaccident,understood
as an undesirable event causing significant damage
287
andloss(materialandpersonal)asaresultofcollision
orinternallycontradictoryinteractionsinthesystem:
man‐object‐surroundings [7]. It must be mentioned
that of the components constituting maritime safety
the most variable is navigational safety. For this
reason maritime safety assessment of an individual
ship usually comes
down to assessing her
navigationalsafety[17].
Maritimesafetyissometimesdefinedalsoas“such
desirableconditionsofhumanactivityatseathatdo
not endanger human life and property, and are not
harmfulto themarine environment”.It iscomposed
of four components namely technological and
operational ships’safety,
safety of navigation, safety
of person in distress, and prevention of pollution of
environmentfromshipsasshowninFigure1[18].
Figure1.Fourmajorcomponentsofsafetyatsea[18]
5 DEFINITIONSOFNAVIGATIONALSAFETY
Navigation is a basic element of a complex safety
system at sea, related to the human factor. Impact,
both the elements of the system as well as the
navigationprocessitselfhavesuchfactorsas[15]:
type,purposeandtasksoftheship,
ship
ʹs naval characteristics, manoeuvrability and
technicaldata,
environmentalconditionsofthereservoirinwhich
theshipisoperated,
number of deposit members and their
qualifications.
There are many factors influencing the level of
navigationsafety,amongwhichthreesystemscanbe
distinguished[16]:
bridgemanning(navigationprocesses),
marineenvironment(disturbancelevel),
technical and legal aspects related to the
navigationprocess.
Maritime navigation is seen as a complex of
activities including science, knowledge and practice,
enabling relocating vessels in water areas between
specifiedpoints,providingthemwithanappropriate
levelofsafetyfortheassumedcriteriaand
limitations.
Knowledgeaboutsafeandefficientnavigationinthe
seas and oceans basically includes its methods.
Researchandthedevelopmentofnewtechniquesare
constantly implemented in the navigation practice
[15]. The safety status of marine navigation can be
presentedasafunctiondependingonmanytechnical
parametersofships,
thestateoftheenvironmentand
infrastructureoftheswimmingareaandthelevelof
qualificationsofnavigators[15],[18]:
,, ,,,,,,,,
N
NN SRiSZAPNS
BfPWMISNKSSZG
where:
P
N ‐levelofconductingnavigationalprocesses,
W
N ‐thestateofshipʹsequipment,
M
S‐parameters of ship’s manoeuvring
characteristics,
I
R ‐levelofnavigationinfrastructure,
S
i ‐type of information system about the marine
environment,
N
S‐levelofnavigationalinformationservices,
K
Z‐competences and qualifications of the shipʹs
crew,
S
A ‐the ability of ships to call on the signals of
callingforhelp,
S
P ‐abilitytoassist,
Z
N‐theabilitytohelpshipsindistress,
G
S‐ ‐thestateofthegeographicalenvironment.
Navigationalsafetyisthereforeoneofthepriority
tasks for todayʹs shipping. It consists in carrying a
vessel from the point of departure to the point of
destinationwithoutthreatstohumanhealthandlife,
economic losses and threats to the environment.
Navigational
safetyassessmentscanbedoneusingan
P
i indicator calculated on the basis of these factors
[34]:
,, , , ,,,
iiiiiiiii
PfASNHMIRF
where:
P
i ‐ navigationsafetyassessmentindicator,
A
i ‐ seaareaparameters,
S
i ‐ shipʹsparameters,
N
i ‐ parametersofpositioningsystems,
H
i ‐ hydrometeorologicalparameters,
M
i‐ parametersofthemanoeuvre,
I
i‐ parametersoftrafficdensity,
R
i ‐ parametersofthetrafficcontrolsystem,
F
i‐ humanfactor.
ThePishippingsafetyindicatorcanbeexpressed
usingtheprobabilityofaccident(failure)indicatorP
A
[34]:
1
iA
PP
Manoeuvring a vessel navigating in the sea is
associated with the risk of an accident. The vessel’s
navigational safety is determined by an acceptable
riskthatcanbedescribedas[34]:
acc A min
R
PC
where:
R
acc ‐ acceptablerisk,
P
A ‐ accident(failure)indicator,
C
min‐ acceptableleveloflosses.
288
In the view of marine traffic engineering, the
construction of a navigational risk model on marine
waterways requires the determination of basic
parametersofthenavigationsafetyassessment,such
as[8]:
widthofthesafemanoeuvringarea,
navigational reliability of the vessel on the
waterway,
technicalreliability
oftheship,
kineticenergyofhittingtheshipontheberth,
kineticenergyofcontactbetweentheshipandthe
bottomofthesea,
kineticenergyofthecollisionoftwoships.
Thehumanfactorisveryimportantbutdifficultto
takeintoaccountinassessing
navigationalsafety[24].
The Nautical Institute has investigated the causes of
collisions and groundings over the past 10 years, in
whichhumanerrorwastheprimarycause.Collisions
and groundings due to mechanical and structural
failures were not taken into account, nor were
incidentswherevesselsdraggedanchor,collidedwith
quays
andjettiesorwereundercontroloftugs.These
constituted about 40 per cent of all incidents of
collision and grounding, leaving 60 per cent of
incidentsaccountedforbydirecthumanerror[6].The
human factor consists fatigue, automation, situation
awareness,communication,decisionmakingprocess,
teamwork,healthand
stress.Theseindividualfactors
can be contributory causes in accident causation,
howeverthesafetyclimateonshipwillalsoinfluence
whether or not an individual engages in safe
behaviors or not [9].It is importantto mention, that
thequantitativeassessmentofnavigationalsafety,as
wellasothertypes,canbe
carriedoutbyestimating
thereliabilityofthesystem.Thedegreeofriskcanbe
regulatedbyintentionalactionsaimedatfindingthe
optimaldecision[20].
Navigation safety is defined as a relatively
constant state, clear of dangers provided by the
system of international and national technical,
organizational, economic, social,
and juridical
standards, which are aimed at the reduction and
preventionofaccidentsatseatoprovidesafetyoflife
and property at sea and marine environmental
protection[33].
Anotherdefinitionpresentsnavigationsafetyasa
component of the maritime safety, which includes,
apart from navigational hazards, other aspects like
stability,
fire or cargo hazards. Maritime safety
togetherwiththesafetyofthemarineenvironmentis
partoftheconceptofsafetyatsea,definedasthestate
of human activity at sea causing threats to ships,
humanlifeandtheenvironment[7].
Navigation safety assessment can be carried out
using
theprobabilistic method. This method enables
determineprobabilitybyusingmethodsoffaulttree
andeventtreeanalyses.
On this basis it is possible to estimate the
navigationalriskandexaminewaysofcounteracting
andreducingrisksinvesseltraffic–riskmanagement
inseatransport,whichisofmajorimportance
forthe
assuranceofsafenavigation[25].
6 RISKANALYSISANDRISKMANAGEMENTIN
MARITIMETRANSPORT
Presented recommendations and regulations in the
field of safety management in water transport are
related to maritime transport. They cover various
levels(international,regional,nationalorindustry)of
management and organization responsible for
maritime
safetymanagementsystems,whichhaveto
be maintained as a continuous cycle [26, 29]. Risk
assessmentisthereforerecurrent.
Figure2. Relationship between Risk Assessment and the
SafetyManagementSystem[29]
Allthesestandardsforriskmanagementprovides
base information to set a common standard for
assessments undertaken (risk assessment defines the
risks and a safety management system manages the
risks). The risk assessment has to start with
identification of hazards (as something with the
potential to cause harm to people, environment
or
property).Onceahazardisidentified,frequencyand
consequence data must be added. Risk is a
combinationofthefrequency(likelihood,probability
or chance) of a hazard realization and the
consequence (severity or impact) of the hazard
reachingitspotential[29].Theriskassessmentcanbe
undertakenbyqualitative
orquantitativeapproach.
The main document on risk management in
maritime transport is the methodology of a
formalized safety management procedure (FSA –
Formal Safety Assessment) issued by International
MaritimeOrganization(IMO),basedonthegenerally
acceptedriskmanagementmethodology[13,26].FSA
isastructuredandsystematicmethodology,aimedat
enhancing maritime safety, including protection of
life,health,themarineenvironmentandproperty,by
using risk analysis and cost benefit assessment. A
five‐level risk management procedure based on the
FSAmethodologyrecommendedbytheIMOincludes
[13]:
1 identification of hazards (a list of all relevant
accident scenarios with
potential causes and
outcomes),
2 assessmentofrisks(evaluationofriskfactors),
3 riskcontroloptions(devisingregulatorymeasures
tocontrolandreducetheidentifiedrisks),
4 cost benefit assessment (determining cost
effectivenessofeachriskcontroloption),
5 recommendations for decision‐making
(information about the hazards, their associated
risksand
the cost effectiveness of alternativerisk
controloptionsisprovided).
289
Figure3.TheFSAProcess[13]
Anotherdocumentwhichsetsoutaninternational
standard for the safe management and operation of
ships and the prevention of pollution is International
ShipSafetyManagementCode(ISM)introducedintothe
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
(SOLAS)[6].TheapplicationoftheISMCodeshould
support and
motivate the development of safety
cultureinshipping.ThepurposeoftheISMCodeisto
ensuresafetyatsea,topreventaccidentsorlossoflife
andtoavoiddamagetothemarineenvironmentand
property[14,26].
Otherdocumentsarerecommendationsissuedby
national, regional (for example, EMSA)
and
internationalagenciesandorganizations.Anexample
is International Association of Marine Aids to
Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA),
which provides its members with two risk
management tools: IWRAP (IALA Waterways Risk
Assessment Program) and PAWSA (Port and
Waterways Assessment) [10].IWRAP is a modelling
tool useful for maritime risk assessment.
Using
IWRAP it is possible to estimate the frequency of
collisionsandgroundingsinagivenwaterwaybased
oninformationabouttrafficvolume/compositionand
routegeometry[11].PAWSAprovidesanassessment
ofriskinadefinedwaterwayandtheoutputindicates
whethertheexistingriskinawaterwayis[10]:
acceptable and that no further work is needed
unlesschangesoccurinsignificantcriteria,suchas
the traffic pattern or types of vessels using that
waterway,
not acceptable but the risk control options
necessary to make the risk level of thewaterway
acceptablehavebeenidentifiedadequately,
not
acceptable and more detailed study is
necessary to enable the risk control options that
willmaketherisklevelofthewaterwayacceptable
tobeidentifiedadequately.
Another very active association in the field of
maritimesafetyisWorldAssociationforWaterborne
TransportInfrastructurePIANC(itsearliernamewas
as
the Permanent International Association of
Navigation Congresses PIANC; it is additionally
known as the International Navigation Association)
withitstechnicalcommissionsandworkinggroupsof
experts.
Recommended Practice for Risk management in
marine issued by Classification Society Det Norske
Veritas (DNV) is an example of industry standards
[31]. The overall objective
with this Recommended
Practice is to establish guidelines and
recommendationsfortheprocessrequiredtoreachan
acceptable and controlled exposure to risk during
marineoperations,forpersonnel,environment,assets
and reputation [31]. British Ports (UK Port Marine
SafetyCode[21]),NewZealand(Port&HarborRisk
AssessmentandSafety
ManagementSystem[29])and
Canadian (Pilotage Risk Management Methodology
[27]) are good examples of domestic norms for risk
estimation in seaports [25]. It’s also common, that
countries are taking activities aimed at improving
safetyatsea ontheir own.In viewof the forecasted
increaseintrafficvolume[1],[22]related
toArcticoil
andgasproduction,exportoforesandotherminerals
and possible commercial use of the Northern Sea
Route, the Norwegian authorities have identified a
needforgreatereffortstoraisethelevelofsafetyfor
shipping in Norwegian waters, particularly in the
north[2].Suchexamplescan
bemultipliedhere.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Transportsafetycanbedefinedinanumberofways.
This article presents definitions of maritime safety,
safetyatsea,navigationalsafetyandsafetyingeneral.
Itlooksatthedevelopmentofresponsestoanumber
ofaspectsofsafetyatsea,anddrawslessonsfor
the
future. In the past, many safety issues for shipping
havebeenaddressedbylegislation.Anditseemslike
itʹsagoodway.
The review of matters related to maritime safety
should include studies of shipping across the
following areas: seafarerʹs fatigue, stress, health,
situation awareness, teamwork, decision‐
making,
communication, exchange of information,
technological development, digitalization,
automation,andaboveallsafetyculture.
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NewYork–Leiden2015
