275
1 INTRODUCTION
ItiswellknownthatKorea(Republicof)hasachieved
dramatic economic development since the Korean
War. It also achieved political democracy through
numerousandpainfulcivilmovementsin1970sand
1980s. In fact, the world now expects Korea to
contribute in various fields regarding global issues
and
itisanticipatedthatKoreawouldwillinglytake
part in with an active and efficient manner. Present
‘peacetalks’withNorthKoreais,forinstance,oneof
the main movements of Korea for the international
welfareandpeace.
Nevertheless,asfarastheissueofsafetyinKorea
is concerned,
there is room for much improvement.
The author suspects that few Koreans recognize the
importanceofsafetyofthecommunityand/orsociety.
Foracoupleofdecades,atleast,Koreangovernment
has been trying to establish safe environments,
remediesandenforcements,butfailed.Thisisdueto,
theauthorbelieves,the
missingpremisethat‘safetyis
amatterofculturebeforeoftechnology(Kwon2012)’.
Simple remedy of asking individual responsibility
with at most temporary extra budget, for example,
cannothelp,butrecurringtheaccidents.
Reason(1997)arguesthatorganizationalaccidents,
whichoftenleadstocatastrophicconsequences,isthe
mainconcern
ofthesafetyissue.Heincludestalkson
organizational culture as well as safety culture, but
not on the national culture. It is apprehended that
Koreadoesnotrecognize theReason’sargument,let
alonethenationalculture.
1.1 Cultureswithinsafety
Culture could be defined as the aggregation of
peoples’ thought
and behavior in a given
community/society/country. Naturally, it yields
individual, organizational and national cultures. In
fact,cultureisanaggregateofhumanfactors(Kwon
2012). In the context, it may be argued that most
moderncivilization,suchastechnologies,institutions,
skills relevant to safety issues and so on, is western
products, which are, then, imported by the rest of
countries. Such know‐hows are developed based on
A Review on the National Culture and Its Effects on the
Transportation Safety Perspectives
Y.Kwon
ChosunUniversity,Gwangju,SouthKorea
ABSTRACT:Safety,alongwiththeissueofsecurity,isthemostsubstantialandcriticalissuetoanysocietyand
nationofthemankind.Thefactthathumanelementscontributedominantly,inparticular,tothetransportation
– marine, air and road traffic – accidents requires not only
the technical approaches, but also cultural
configuration inherent to the accidents. This paper tries to incorporate Hofstede’s dimensions of national
culturetoidentifypossibleinteractionwithaccidents.Itwillbeofhelptofigureouttheneedtoconsiderthe
aspectofnationalculturetobeefficientindealingwith
policiesforsafercommunitiesandnations.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 13
Number 2
June 2019
DOI:10.12716/1001.13.02.02
276
western culture and if, once established, it does not
workproperlyorevendoesnotattractactiveinterest
inanothersocietyorcountry,wemayspeculateupon
the differences of culture between the
societies/countries. It is noted that Hofstede &
Hofstede (2005) and Merritt (2000) ask the same
questions.
In
short,oneofthechallengestotacklethecurrent
safety level of Korean society is to change the
‘practices’consulting thecore‘values’ofthesociety.
This paper tries to contribute for the task reviewing
andcomparingnationalcultures betweenvulnerable
and advanced countries with respect to road traffic
safety
records.It mayalsobenoted that road traffic
activity is the mostcommon daily life of the people
and,therefore,raisingitssafetypracticesisthemost
efficient way to achieve safer environment/society,
consideringitsrippleeffectonthewholecommunity,
includingseaand/orairtransportationsafetycircles.
2 NATIONAL
CULTUREANDITSDIMENSIONS
2.1 NationalCulture
Geert Hofstede carried out pioneering works on
nationalcultureduringlate1960’sthrough1970s.His
research has been updated by himself, his son Gert
JanandMichaelMinkov(Hofstedeetal.2014).Figure
1 depicts the manifestations of culture at different
levels of
depth (Hofstede & Hofstede 2005). In
practice, we may focus on ‘Values’ (which is the
deepest one) and‘Practices’ in a community/society.
Practices, being comprised of rituals, heroes and
symbols, are visible to an outside observer; their
cultural meaning, however, is invisible and lies
precisely and only in the way these
practices are
interpretedbytheinsiders.Culturechangecanbefast
forthepractices,whereasitisslowforvalues.Values
arebroadtendenciestoprefercertainstatesofaffairs
overothers.Valuesarefeelingswithanarrowtoit:a
plusandminussidedealingwith,forinstance,evil
vs
good, dangerous vs safe, forbidden vs permitted,
moral vs immoral, and so on (Hofstede & Hofstede
2005).
Figure1.The“Onion”:manifestationsofcultureatdifferent
levelofdepth(Hofstede&Hofstede2005)
Figure2showsthelearningprocessofvaluesand
practices. Values are acquired early in our lives. As
wegrowupatsome10to12years,wecan quickly,
largely and unconsciously absorb necessary
informationfrom ourenvironment. Then, at the end
of this period, we gradually switch to a
different,
consciouswayoflearning,focusingprimarilyonnew
practices.Itisnotedthatbasicvalues,beingacquired
at early ages, become considerably stable in spite of
sweepingchangesinpractices (Hofstede&Hofstede
2005).
Figure2.Thelearning of values andpractices(Hofstede &
Hofstede2005)
2.2 DimensionsofNationalCulture
A dimension is an aspect of a culture that can be
measured relative to other cultures. Having studied
survey data about the values of people working at
IBMinmorethanfifty countriesandconsultedwith
findingsofsocialscientists,suchasAlexInkelesand
Daniel
Levinson,Hofstedefoundfourbasicproblem
areasrepresentdimensionsofcultures.Lateron,with
the help of colleagues, two dimensions are
supplemented,resultinginasfollows(Hofstedeetal.
2014);
1 Powerdistanceindex(PDI)
2 Individualismindex(IDV)
3 Masculinityindex(MAS)
4 Uncertaintyavoidanceindex(UAI)
5 Long‐
termorientation(LTO)
6 Indulgenceversusrestraint(IVR)
PDIscoresareabout‘dependence’relationshipsin
acountry,andcanbedefinedas‘theextenttowhich
the less powerful members of institutions and
organizationswithinacountryexpectandacceptthat
powerisdistributedunequally’.Itisnotedthatlarge‐
power
‐distance countries show a pattern of
polarization between dependence and
counterdependence and the emotional distance
betweensubordinateandtheirbossesislarge.
Asto theIDV,individualismpertainstosocieties
in which the ties between individuals are loose.
Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in
which people from birth
onward are integrated into
strong, collective in‐groups, which throughout
people’s lifetimes continue to protect them in
exchangeforunquestioningloyalty.
277
The terms masculine and feminine are used for
social,culturallydeterminedroles.Asocietyiscalled
masculine/femininewhenemotionalgenderrolesare
clearlydistinct/overlapped.Itmayalsobeinterpreted
as the desirability of assertive behavior against the
desirabilityofmodestbehavior,respectively.
Uncertaintyavoidancecanbedefinedastheextent
towhichthemembersofaculturefeelthreatenedby
ambiguous or unknown situations. Hofstede &
Hofstede (2005) state that stronger uncertainty
avoidance means faster driving, that is more fatal
accidents.
LTO stands for the fostering of virtues oriented
toward future rewards – in particular, perseverance
and thrift. Short‐term
orientation stands for the
fosteringofvirtuesrelatedtothepastandpresent–in
particular,respectfortradition,preservationof‘face’
andfulfillingsocialobligations.
Indulgence represents the tendency toward
allowingrelativefreedomoffulfillingsubstantialand
naturalambitionofhumanbeingrelatedwithhaving
fun and enjoying life. Restraint
shows against such
freedombyregulationandcontrol.
Hofstedeetal.(2014)alsoprovidekeydifferences
betweensmall‐and large distances societieson each
dimension with categorizing such as ‘general norm
and family’, ‘language, personality, and behavior’,
‘school and the workplace’ etc., which are quite
informative on the main practices
in a given
dimension and country. Selections of these key
differences, which are relevant to safety issues
directly and indirectly, are recounted and
incorporated, respectively, for the assessing the
resultstobeofhelpindrawinglong‐termresolutions.
It is noted that even in a country, distances can be
quite
differentwithsocialclass,educationlevel, and
occupationaswellaswithgenderandgeneration.
3 NATIONALCULTURESOFCOUNTRIESON
ROADTRAFFICSAFETYRECORDS
3.1 Relationbetweenroadtrafficsafetyandnational
culturedimensions
Effects of the car, being the most popular mode of
transport worldwide, is tremendous on
a society
(Kang2011a).Sucheffectswouldreflectthevaluesof
a community and again through the practices give
effects to the values of national culture. Poor traffic
safety culture is comprised of not only
irresponsible/inconsiderable behavior, lack of
attention, aggressive behavior but also poor design
andconstructiononeitherroads
orsignalfacilitiesas
well as impracticable plan to deal with relevant
issues. These typical characteristics of a poor traffic
culture are only due to selfishness (and not due to
individualism).Selfishnesscomesmainlyfromlackof
communication, which is an essence of all human
activities, including traffic in particular
(Min & Noh
2011,Cheong2007).Thenitwouldbeimportantwhy
and how lack of communication happens in a
community/society. With the help of one’s own
experiences as well as information about key
differences between small‐ and large distances
societies on each dimension, Hofstede et al. (2014)
provided,wemay
observethepracticalmechanismof
apoortrafficculture.
Each of 5 countries with poor/advanced road
traffic fatality record, named as
‘vulnerables’/‘advanced’ respectively are designated
fromthedatashowninFigures1,2and3(OECD/ITF
2018),andtheyareasfollows;
Figure3. Road fatalities per 100,000 inhabitants 2017
(OECD/ITF2018)
Figure4. Road deaths per 10,000 vehicles 2016 (OECD/ITF
2018)
Figure5. Road deaths per distance travelled 2016: billion
vehicle‐kilometres(OECD/ITF2018)
Vulnerable:Korea(Republicof), Chile, Colombia,
MalaysiaandSouthAfrica(Republicof)
Advanced: United Kingdom, Sweden,
Netherlands,NorwayandSwitzerland
It is noted that only certain countries are
considered who provided data to the International
TrafficSafetyDataandAnalysisGroup(IRTAD)and
whosenationalculturedimensionsareavailable.
278
3.2 Nationalculturesofvulnerableandadvanced
countries
Figures 6 through 11 show the comparison between
‘vulnerables’ and ‘advanced’ of each dimension of
nationalculture(Hofstedeetal.2014).Itisnotedthat
in cases of Switzerland and South Africa, the
Hofstede’s dimension indices are mean values of
Frenchand
Germanterritoriesandfromwhitesonly,
respectively.
Figure 6 shows higher power distance values for
vulnerable countries. Considering substantial
differences between small‐ and large‐power‐distance
societiesshowninTable1,itispresumedtheresultis
plausible. Misuse of power appears in traffic
activities,asKang(2011a)speculated,and
itwouldbe
severe in large PDI countries as shown in Table 1.
Morepowerdistance,lessdialogueisacriticalissue
as traffic, being road, air or marine, is all about
dialogue(orcommunication)withoneanother.
Figure6.Powerdistanceindex(PDI)
Table1. Selections of key differences between small‐ and
large‐power‐distance societies: The State (Hofstede &
Hofstede2005)
_______________________________________________
SmallPowerDistanceLargePowerDistance
_______________________________________________
Theuseofpowershouldbe Mightprevailsoverright:
legitimateandfollowcriteriawhoeverholdsthepoweris
ofgoodandevil.rightandgood.
Allshouldhaveequalrights. Thepowerfulshouldhave
privileges.
Powerisbasedonformal Powerisbasedontradition
position,expertise,andability orfamily,charisma,andthe
togiverewards.abilitytouseforce.
Thereismoredialogueand Thereislessdialogueand
lessviolenceindomestic moreviolenceindomestic
politics.politics.
_______________________________________________
Comparison of individualism index is quite
evidentasshowninFigure7.Themorecollectivism,
the more vulnerable in road traffic safety accidents.
Hofstede & Hofstede (2005) refer to Bond’s survey
study results that students from countries scoring
‘individualist’ and ’collectivist’ answered that
following values, respectively, were particularly
important:
Tolerance
ofothers
Harmonywithothers
Noncompetitiveness
Trustworthiness
Contentednesswithone’spositioninlife
and
Filial piety (obedience to parents, respect for
parents,honoringofancestors,financialsupportof
parents)
Patriotism
Bond’s results above correlate strongly with the
result in Figure 7. Several key differences
between
collectivistandindividualistsocietiesshowninTable
2 are also to be noted as the cause and effect of
drivingculture(Kang2011a).
Figure7.Individualismindex(IDV)
Table2. Selections of key differences between collectivist
and individualist societies: General norm, Personality,
school,workplace,TheState(Hofstede&Hofstede2005)
_______________________________________________
CollectivistIndividualist
_______________________________________________
Trespassingleadstoshame Trespassingleadstoguilt
andlossoffaceforselfand andlossofself‐respect.
group.
InterdependentselfIndependentself
Thepurposeofeducationis Thepurposeofeducationis
learninghowtodo.learninghowtolearn.
In‐groupcustomersgetbetterEverycustomershouldget
treatment(particularism).thesametreatment
(universalism).
Privatelifeisinvadedby Everyonehasarightto
group(s)privacy
Lawsandrightsdifferby Lawsandrightsare
group.supposedtobethesamefor
all.
_______________________________________________
The result of masculinity index shows certain
correlation,buttheUnitedKingdomandSwitzerland
appear to be quite exceptional among the advanced,
as shown in Figure 8. Otherwise, it is tempting to
draw more masculinity, more vulnerable to road
accidents. It is suspected, from author’s experience,
that the UK
(as well as Switzerland, particularly at
Germanregion)preservesstrongdisciplinesalongthe
establishedsocialprinciples.Suchdiscrepanciesmay
arise from racial characteristics. Speculating the
definitionofMASandconsultingmoredataofother
countries, masculinity/femininity may not
significantlyrelatedwithroadtrafficsafety.
279
Figure8.Masculinityindex(MAS)
Theresultof uncertainty avoidanceindex, Figure
9,reveals visibledifferencesbetweentwogroups,as
Hofstede&Hofstede (2005) speculated that stronger
uncertaintyavoidancemeansfasterdriving.Infact,it
isrevealedthatthedegreeofuncertaintyavoidanceis
a very important issue even in safety perspectives.
Numerousexamplesofgeneral
practicesareshownin
Table 3‐1 through 3‐5, which are directly and
indirectly relevant to safety practices. Kang (2011b)
arguesthatatthebackgroundofthe,socalled,speed
warinKorea,fearstotheendlessuncertaintylocate,
disablingcommunication.
Figure9.Uncertaintyavoidanceindex(UAI)
Figure 10 shows the result of long term
orientation,from which LTO may notbe relevantto
roadtrafficaccidents.
The result of indulgence versus restraint (IVR)
does not look to show relation to safety behavior.
Nevertheless,Koreaisauniquecaseintheexample,
whichmightneedextraattention.
Table3‐1. Selections of key differences between weak and
strong uncertainty avoidance societies: General norm and
family(Hofstede&Hofstede2005)
_______________________________________________
Weakuncertaintyavoidance Stronguncertainty
avoidance
_______________________________________________
Uncertaintyisanormal Theuncertaintyinherentin
featureoflife,andeachday lifeisacontinuousthreat
isacceptedasitcomes.thatmustbefought.
Lowstressandlowanxiety. Highstressandhigh
anxiety.
Aggressionandemotions Aggressionandemotions
shouldnotbeshown.mayatpropertimesand
placesbeventilated.
Comfortableinambiguous Acceptanceoffamiliarrisks;
situationsandwithunfamiliarfearofambiguoussituations
risks.andofunfamiliarrisks.
Weaksuperegosdeveloped. Strongsuperegos
developed.
SimilarmodesofaddressforDifferentmodesofaddress
differentothers.fordifferentothers.
Whatisdifferentiscurious. Whatisdifferentis
dangerous.
Familylifeisrelaxed.Familylifeisstressful.
_______________________________________________
Table3‐2. Selections of key differences between weak and
strong uncertainty avoidance societies: Health and
education(Hofstede&Hofstede2005)
_______________________________________________
Weakuncertaintyavoidance Stronguncertainty
avoidance
_______________________________________________
Peoplefeelhappier.Peoplefeellesshappy.
Peoplehavefewerworries Peoplehavemoreworries
abouthealthandmoney. abouthealthandmoney.
Studentsarecomfortablewith Studentsarecomfortablein
open‐endedlearningstructuredlearning
situationsandconcerned situationsandconcerned
withgooddiscussions.withrightanswers.
Resultsareattributedtoa Resultsareattributedto
person’sownability.circumstancesandluck.
Teachersinvolveparents. Teachersinformparents.
_______________________________________________
Table3‐3. Selections of key differences between weak and
strong uncertainty avoidance societies: The workplace,
organization,andmotivation(Hofstede&Hofstede2005)
_______________________________________________
Weakuncertaintyavoidance Stronguncertainty
avoidance
_______________________________________________
Thereshouldbenomore Thereisanemotionalneed
rulesthanstrictlynecessary. forrules,evenifthesewill
notwork.
Hard‐workingonlywhen Thereisanemotionalneed
needed.tobebusyandaninnerurge
toworkhard.
ThereistoleranceforThereisaneedforprecision
ambiguityandchaos.andformalization.
Beliefingeneralistsand Beliefinexpertsand
commonsense.technicalsolutions.
TopmanagersareconcernedTopmanagersare
withstrategy.concernedwithdaily
operations.
_______________________________________________
280
Table3‐4. Selections of key differences between weak and
stronguncertaintyavoidance societies: Thecitizenand the
state(Hofstede&Hofstede2005)
_______________________________________________
Weakuncertaintyavoidance Stronguncertainty
avoidance
_______________________________________________
Iflawscannotberespected, Lawsarenecessary,evenif
theyshouldbechanged. theycannotberespected.
Fastresultincaseofappeal Slowresultincaseofappeal
tojustice.tojustice.
Citizenscompetenttoward Citizensincompetent
authorities.towardauthorities.
Citizenprotestisacceptable. Citizenprotestshouldbe
repressed.
Citizenstrustpoliticians, Citizensarenegative
civilservants,andthelegal towardpoliticians,civil
system.servants,andthelegal
system.
ThereishighparticipationinThereislowparticipationin
voluntaryassociationsand voluntaryassociationsand
movements.movements.
Positiveattitudestoward Negativeattitudestoward
youngpeople.youngpeople.
Tolerance,evenofextreme Extremismandrepression
ideas.ofextremism.
_______________________________________________
Table3‐5. Selections of key differences between weak and
stronguncertaintyavoidancesocieties:Toleranceandideas
(Hofstede&Hofstede2005)
_______________________________________________
Weakuncertaintyavoidance Stronguncertainty
avoidance
_______________________________________________
Moreethnictolerance.Moreethnicprejudice.
LowerriskofviolentHighriskofviolent
intergroupconflict.intergroupconflict.
Ifcommandmentscannotbe Ifcommandmentscannotbe
respected,theyshouldbe respected,wearesinners
changed.andshouldrepent.
Inphilosophyandscience, Inphilosophyandscience,
thereisatendencytoward thereisatendencytoward
relativismandempiricism. grandtheories.
Scientificopponentscanbe Scientificopponentscannot
personalfriends.bepersonalfriends.
Literaturedealingwith Literaturedealingwith
fantasyworlds.rulesandTruth.
_______________________________________________
Figure10.Longtermorientation(LTO)
Figure11.Indulgenceversusrestraint(IVR)
4 DICUSSIONS
Thereareanumberofmeetingstodiscussthewaysof
enhancingtheroadtrafficsafetyinKorea.Itincludes
at times talks on the (road safety) culture, but
comparing with corresponding contents of human
and social scientists sectors, the approaches and
development fall rather short. Even an ancient
ChinesephilosopheratBC6century,Lao‐tzuclaimed
‘不罰衆策’, meaning ‘the people commit, then not
guilty’(Shin2004).
Hofstede et al. (2014) enumerate differences
between countries along value dimensions, which
helpnotonlyunderstandingdifferences in thinking,
feelingandbehavingbytheleadersandthoseledbut
also
appreciatingthetheoriesproducedoradoptedin
these countries to explain or prescribe thought,
feeling, and behavior. Before entering in the present
discussions, the author may confess about the
hindrancehefeltinsomeaspects.Forinstance,asto
the definition of individualism or masculinity, the
author had to try to
overcome prejudice, probably
most Koreans would have (Cheong 2007). In some
cases, understanding terminology rightlyisnot easy
job to outsiders. Also, the author realizes that he
should have had good knowledge on the culture of
the countries in order to be fair and logical in the
investigation. Nevertheless, practices
(of road traffic
safety) being, in principle, from values the country
and citizen move with, the result could be further
discussedforKorea,theauthor’shomeland.
Among the six dimensions, power distance,
individualismanduncertaintyavoidanceappeartobe
relatedwithtrafficsafetyculture.Typicalpracticesof
these dimensions, shown in
Tables 1, 2 and 3‐1
through 3‐4, are correlated directly and indirectly
with features of traffic safety culture and practices.
This implies that, in order to raise the traffic safety
level,notonlyconventionaltechnicalapproachesbut
alsoculturalaspectsshouldbeincorporatedtogether.
Well, the thing is
that most safety experts and
researcherswouldrecognize,butitisnoteasytaskat
all to encompass it into the practices with which all
stakeholdersobservetheneedandaccountability.
Hofstede& Hofstede(2005)foundthatPDI score
is related with (1) the country’s geographic latitude
(which is a rough
indication to its climate), (2) its
populationsize,and(3)itswealth,whereasastothe
281
INV score (1) the country’s geographic latitude and
(2)itswealtharefairlyassociated.Theyalsocontend
that differences in power distance as well as
individualism‐collectivismdifferenceswillsurvivefor
alongtimeintothefuture.
After all, in order to tackle the issues of power
distance and individualism
Korea encounters,
communicationandtrustshouldbetheanswer after
all, and they being the cause and effect, the way to
looking forward to democracy and taking step by
step,notinahurry,wouldbethemostefficientand
effectivepolicy.Theprogressmighttakemuchmore
timethan
asplanned,butitispromisingforKoreaas
to raising the safety level in the future, as power
distance would become smaller and individualism
getsmorefavoraseverinthesociety.
Uncertainty avoidance is a very substantial issue
inasociety.Reviewingandcomparingthehistoriesof
contrasting ancient
Roman and Chinese government
types, Hofstede & Hofstede (2005) speculated that
expectations of fundamental changes in uncertainty
avoidance difference should be a modest one, even
thoughwarandeconomic processescanplay a role.
Historically, Korea suffered difficulties even in
modernera,suchascolonialization,war, continuing
north‐southtensions,
domesticpoliticalupheavaland
dynamiceconomicgrowth,allofwhichshouldhave
affectedthenationalanxietylevel.But,therecomesto
shed light, fortunately, of social welfare system
gettingintofullshapeandofradicalpeacetalkswith
NorthKorea.Suchmovementsshallcontributetothe
Koreansocietyeasingtheanxiety
levelinthefuture.
5 CONCLUSIONS
1 A national policy is based on its own national
culture, and maynotwork on other nations.The
same goes to the so called know‐how of safety
measuresandpolicies.
2 National culture may well be incorporated in
dealing with raising safety
measures and
developmentsalongwithconventionalapproaches
includingtechnicalcatchup.
3 It confirms that safety in a society comes in line
with social trust and communication. Then
institutions and measures for raising the safety
may be drawn encompassing the conditions and
environment of trust and communication
consulting its own national
culture. The effect
couldberatherslow,ifnotsteady,buteventually
progressiveandefficient.
4 Raisingtheroad traffic safety would be themost
efficientwayfortheentiresociety,consideringits
rippleeffectsnotonlyontheothertransportation
modes but also on social premises and even
security
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