403

1 INTRODUCTION

Livingandworkingonboardisquitedifficult,dueto

thenatureofmaritimebusiness.Seafarersareoneof

themostimportantaspectsofthemaritimeindustry,

which has a large share in world trade (IMO, 2011;

UNCTAD, 2015). New regulations and management

strategies,whichwerefocusedonmaximizingprofits,

nat

urallyemergeproblemsforseafarers.Eachseaman

mustfulfilhisorherduties effectively,safelyandas

quickly as possible. Watchkeeping officers are

responsible for ensuring safety of the navigation,

crew and cargo operations, efficiency of shipboard

operations(tokeepthevesselreadytosail,maneuver

etc.) and port operations (loading /unloading,

bunkering, supply operations etc.). Like the other

seafarersonboard,watchkeepingofficershavetoface

up with inconvenient situations such as heavy

weather condit

ions, inconvenient working

environment, inappropriate work/rest hours, dense

traffic, lack of crew, life‐threatening situations etc.

(Arslan&Er,2008;Blooretal.,2004;Jonesetal.,2005;

McNamara,Collins,&Mathews,2000;Uğurluet al.,

2012). These adv

erse conditions shorten the

occupational continuity of seafarers. Qualified

seafarer concept will be possible by ensuring

occupationalcontinuity(Gekara,2009).

Seafarers’ occupational continuity is highly

importantforshippingcompaniesintermsofhiring

qualified seafarers. The concept of ma

npower in

maritime transportation is a sensitive and crucial

matter which should be emphasized (Uğurlu, 2015).

Inappropriateworkingconditionsofseafarersareone

of the most important issues affecting professional

continuity negatively (McLaughlin, 2015; Tang,

Occupational Issues and Expectations of Turkish Deck

Cadets

S.Yıldız,Ö.Uğurlu&E.Yüksekyıldız

KaradenizTechnicalUniversity,Trabzon,Turkey

ABSTRACT: Seafaring is one of the worldʹs most difficult professions. Seafarers have to face with many

negative factors while they areat sea. These negative factors, makes the seafaring profession difficult to be

preferred.Fatigue,stress,heavyweatherconditionsandlackofcommunicationaresomeofthesefact

orsthat

affectseafarer’soccupationalcontinuityandalsomakecontributiontooccurrenceofmarineaccidents.Cadetis

oneoftheseafarerswhowillbeanavigationofficerandcaptaininthenearfuture.That’swhycadetshavea

significantroleinmaritimeindustry.Theoreticalandpracticaltrainingofcadetsisveryimport

ant.Purposeof

thisstudywastoexaminedeckcadets’trainingconditionsanddifficultiestheyhavetofacewithduringtheir

trainingperiod.Inordertoidentifythesedifficulties,rendertheirlivesduringtrainingseasier,andestablish

theirexpectations, questionnaireconductedwith618deckcadets.Interviewswerecarriedoutwith3tra

iners

and10maritimecompaniesthathavesubstantialsharesinTurkey’smaritimetrade.Asaresultofthisstudy

identifiedfactorsthatincreasefatiguemostly,reductionmeasureshavebeenexposedandhavetriedtooffer

solutions.Thisstudyisanadvisorytoimprovetheoccupationalcontinuityofcadetsintheprofession.

http://www.transnav.eu

the International Journal

on Marine Navigation

and Safety of Sea Transportation

Volume 10

Number 3

September 2016

DOI:10.12716/1001.10.03.04

404

Llangco,&Zhao,2016;Uğurlu,2015).Itisnecessary

toensureproperandsafeworkingconditionsforall

seafarers, thereby continuity can be increased. Also,

the concept of qualified seafarer can be possible by

providing occupational continuity of seafarers

(Uğurlu,2015).

Professionalliferequiringcompetitionandithas

a

compelling structure. This structure, constitute a

continuouspressureonthemanagersandemployees

tomeettargets.Constantly,strivingtoproducebetter

products and services, causes stress on employees.

When this stress increases  too much, it leads to

termination of professional life (Koç, Arslan, & 

Topaloglu,2009).

Occupational education and

training is about

developing special skills and talents regarding the

sector (Gekara, Bloor, & Sampson, 2011). In the

twenty first century, vocational education and

training has a significant role in preparing the

individualsforlifeandbusiness(Rauner,Maclean,&

Boreham,2008;Saunders,2012).Vocationaleducation

and training is highly important

 for the maritime

industry.

IMO(InternationalMaritimeOrganization)isalso

awareofthisissue.STCW2010ManilaConference’s

12th decision has been referred to the subject of

occupational continuity and made recommendations

such as; providing reasonable working conditions,

stable working hours and improved social

opportunities in order to increase continuity

(IMO,

2011). However, previous studies confirmed that

watchkeeping officers are subject to unreasonable

workhoursandconditions(Cole‐Davies,2001;Jones

etal.,2005;McNamara et al., 2000;Reyner &Baulk,

1998;Uğurluetal.,2012).Improvingsuchconditions

and offering alternative that will encourage officer

candidatestoworkpermanently

onseaarenecessary

for ensuring permanency of watchkeeping officers

onboard.

STCW is an international code published to

improvethe quality of seamanas well asproduce a

standardsystem.STCWCoderegulates thenecessary

qualificationstandards about training and education

of all seafarers, their experience and skill

requirements as

well as performance of duties in a

mannerensuringprotectionofsecurityandsafetyof

life and property on sea and protection of sea

environment (IMO, 2011; Kostylev &  Loginovsky,

2007). Training, education certifications and

principles of watchkeeping onboard of cadets are

accordingtothiscode.Asperthiscode,cadets

should

complete training meeting STCW Code A‐II/1

requirements in order to achieve certificate of

competency.Ayearofthistrainingiscalledtraining

onboard (IMO, 2011). Training onboard is an

important part of training process. Students could

practice their knowledge, which they have learned

during their education. Thus, this

study covers the

training periods of cadets.Accordingly,  this study

discusses working conditions and working hours of

deckcadetsduringonboardtraining.

2 METHOD

Questionnaire have been conducted with 618 deck

cadets who received undergraduate level maritime

educationinTurkeyandcompletedtrainingonboard,

as required by STCW Convention. The age

 rangeof

deckcadetsarevariesfrom18to24.Thisstudyhas4

sections. The first section covers the details of ship,

voyage where deck cadets completed their training

and attitudes, behaviors of the crew whereas the

secondsectionisabouttrainingconditionsandsocial

opportunities,thirdsectionis

abouttheirexpectations

in order to work permanently onboard and the last

section is about 10 major shipping companies

questionnaire results concerning their training and

managementpoliciesaboutdeckcadets.

Inthis studySPSS22.00.00analysisprogramwas

used to evaluate the answers and to check the

reliabilityofthequestionnaire’s

scale.Thegoalofthis

studyistodeterminedeckcadets’trainingconditions,

their workload and their perspective about

occupation.Moreover,inlightof thisinformationto

make recommendations in order to increase

occupationalcontinuity.

3 SURVEYDATA

3.1 StepI

AccordingtotheSTCWcodeAII/2deckcadets

have

tocarryouttrainingperiodonvesselsover500grtfor

12month.Sotrainingperiod,typeofshiptrainedon,

navigationzoneandattitudes,behaviorsofthecrew

wereexaminedatthisstep(IMO,2011).Thereviewof

ship types chosen for training confirmed that deck

cadetsgenerallypreferred

drycargoandtankertype

vesselsasatrainingshipandmostofshipspreferred

have a gross tonnage (grt) of 0 to 30000. As for the

training periods of deck cadet, 79% of the trainings

onboardare0to3monthswhereasremaining21%is

over3months

(Table1).

A criteria was recommend to achieve this, there

should be a kind approach to trainees (IMO, 2011).

Surveydatashowed73%ofmasters,chiefofficersand

other crew members have “Good” attitudes to deck

cadets. Seventeen percent of masters, chief officers

and other crewmembers have “Moderate” attitudes

and

 10% of superiors have  “bad or very bad”

attitudestocadets.

Table1. Features of the vessels and training periods

preferredbydeckcadets(n=618)

_______________________________________________

Trainingn ShipType n ShipGross  n

PeriodsTonnage

_______________________________________________

0‐1Month 20 Tanker 147 0‐3000173

1‐2Months 161 DryCargo294 3000‐10000  248

2‐3Months 309 RoRo  108 10000‐30000 127

4‐6Months 18 Passanger 17 30000‐50000 37

>6Months 110 Container 49 >5000033

Othership3

types

_______________________________________________

n=numberofdeckcadets



405

Thereviewonattitudesandbehaviorsofmasters,

chief officers and crews towards the deck cadet

onboard confirmed that the level of satisfaction is

good.Theotherissuewastrainingareabecausewhen

thosecadetsgraduatedtheyhaveanunlimitedlicense

and they were capable to navigate all around the



world. According to survey data, deck cadets

completedtheirtrainingperiodnavigatedintheBlack

Sea (29%), Mediterranean Sea (25%), coastal

navigation 22% and the remaining preferred other

regions.

3.2 StepII

The second section is about training conditions and

social opportunities. According to MLC and STCW

Conventions seafarers’ working

and resting periods

arranged intwo different systems, one of them was

maximum working hours and other one minimum

restinghour.InTurkey,ingeneralminimumresting

hourssystemapplying,whichmeansprovidedwitha

restperiodnotlessthanminimum10hoursinany24

hoursperiodand77hours

inany7daysperiod.Also

daily 10 hours of rest can divided into 2 parts

maximumandoneofthesetwopartsmustbeatleast

6hours(ILO,2006;IMO,2011).Accordingtosurvey

results, 68% (n=419) of deck cadets stated that they

worked 0to 13 hours

during their training  onboard

whereas 32% (n=199) worked over 13 hours (Figure

1).



Figure1.Dailyaverageworkinghoursofdeckcadets

According to the 2010 STCW Manila Conference

decision13,suitablelivingconditionsmustprovided

for trainees’ adequate training (IMO, 2011). Twenty

eight percent of the deck cadets did not have their

owncabinsattheshipswheretheyweretrained;they

stayedatothercabinsandhadtoilet,refrigerator,TV

and

 internet problems at such cabins (Table 2).

Seventy two percent of them stay their own cabin,

23%stay2 persons inone cabin,%1 stay 3persons,

%4stay4personsand%1stay5personsinonecabin.

Table2.Deckcadetcabinconditions(n=618)

_______________________________________________

CadetCabin WCRefrigerator TV  Internet

(n)(n)(n)(n) (n)

_______________________________________________

Yes316344 80134  32

No302274 583484  586

_______________________________________________

n=numberofdeckcadets



The review made on attitudes adopted towards

trainees by the companies, which hired deck cadets,

confirmed that 62% of those do not have a trainee

policy and 38% of the ones having a policy tried to

implement trainee policy onboard. One of the

trainings that should be received by the

seamen

beforegoingonboardtraining is orientationtraining

offered by the companies. Unfortunately, some

companiesconsiderspendingtocadetsasnon‐return

investmentsandunnecessarycosts.



Figure2. Assessment of Companies hired deck cadets for

training(n=618)

It was confirmed that 78% (n=479) of the deck

cadets going onboard training did not receive such

trainingandtrainingassessmentof77%(n=474)ofthe

deckcadetswerenotperformedbythecompanyafter

the training.Besides 20% (n=122) of thedeck cadets

had difficulties while disembarking from ship after



theirtrainingperiod(Figure2).

3.3 StepIII

Thethirdsectioncoversalternativestobeofferedfor

continuing the sea life, period of working onboard,

jobpreferencesafterthelifeatseaandoverallreview

of traineeship andlive asan officer. 327 of the total

number of candidates participating

to the survey

planstowork5to10yearsatseawhereas183ofthem

plantoworkover 10 yearsand 108 ofthemplan to

work between 0 to 5 years. Considering the

difficultiesof lifeat sea,the alternatives that should

bepresented for improvingthe duration

 of working

atseashouldbesatisfactorysalaries,shortercontract

periods,improvedsocialopportunities,easyinternet

access and qualified crew etc. Following Table 3

shows demands of deck cadets to improve their

occupationalcontinuitywhentheyarewatchkeeping

officers.

Another issue examined here was difficulty of

being a trainee and

a watchkeeping officer. During

theiryearlyseatrainingperiod, cadets were to have

prior knowledge about the profession and to

recognizethedifficultiesoftheprofession.



406

Table3.Alternativesofferedtoimprovecontinuityatsea

_______________________________________________

MeasurestoIncreaseOccupationalContinuity Numberof

deckcadets

_______________________________________________

Easycommunicationandinternetaccess22%

Improvedsocialopportunities(TV,gym,sauna,etc.) 19%

Satisfactorysalary18%

Shortercontractperiods13%

Betterworkinghoursandconditions6%

Goodprovision6%

Workingwithqualifiedcrew6%

Workingwithfamily4%

Workingonclosenavigationzone3%

Workingwithprofessionalcompany 2%

Signonandsignoffasplanned1%

_______________________________________________

Totalnumberofdeckcadets=618



According to data obtained from questionnaire;

being unqualified, unreasonable working hours and

working conditions could be listed as the common

difficultiesofbeingatrainee,whereashomesickness,

being isolated from social life and unreasonable

workinghourswerethedifficultiesoftheprofession

(Table4).

Table4.Difficultiesoftheprofessionandtraineeship

_______________________________________________

Difficultiesof Difficultiesof

traineeship(n) theprofession(n)

_______________________________________________

Beingunqualified(thereis238‐

notaskdefinition,insufficient

trainingandexperience)

Unreasonableworkinghours  233136

andconditions

Homesickness‐196

Beingisolatedfromsociallife  6147

Crewmanagementand1248

responsibility

Uneducatedandinsufficientcrew,2251

badcompany

Dangerousanddifficultprofession1425

Insufficientcommunicationwith 276

theland

Longcontractperiods‐9

Badattitudesofsuperiors838

Beingfemale411

Difficultyoffindingtrainee10‐

vacancies

Beingunauthorized40‐

Noanswer2430

_______________________________________________

n=numberofdeckcadets.Onecadetmaychoosemorethan

onedifficulty.



Oneofthefactorsaffectingsustainabilitywasthe

occupational perspective of deck cadets.Many

cadets are considering the maritime profession as a

job to be held for a short period. They are using

maritime profession as a stepping stone to another

careerdream.Twentyfivepercentofthedeckcadets

are

 planning to work for a shipping company after

the life atsea whereas 25% of them are planningto

workfortradingsector,21%areintendingtoworkfor

governmentofficesand14%areplanningtoworkfor

privatesector.

3.4 StepIV

Examined companies have a great, professional

background

in Turkish and World Maritime Trade.

Companieshavedifferenttypesofvesselssuchasdry

cargo vessels, container vessels, tanker vessels etc.

which working in international countries and ports.

Theyhave totally114piecesofvesselswithdifferent

sizes and different nationality flags, total shipping

capacityofthesevessels4372655deadweight

(DWT).

Ten major shipping companies’ questionnaire

answers were examined and presented at this step.

Firstofall50%(5/10)companiesdefinedeckcadetsas

acandidateofficer“Inadditiontolearningtheymust

take responsibility about their job.” 30% (3/10) of

companiesdefinedeckcadetsasastudent“Theyare

only being there for training.” and 20% (2/10) of

companies define deck cadets as an officer “He/she

alwaysbeastepforward.”.

Second important implication is companies

training strategy about deck cadets, 9 companies

apply occupational training program before

embarkation. Eight companies apply planned on

boardtrainingprogramundercontrolof

chiefofficer.

Also 2 companies guaranteed to provide a personal

cabin for their cadets; others may stay with another

cadet(s) in one cabin. All examined companies give

salarytocadets.Expectationsofshippingcompanies

from deck cadets are the other important inference.

Deck cadets, should be aware of these expectations,

andmustworkinordertomeetthem.

Expectationscanbelistedasfollows;

1 Cadets should be eager to learn, ambitious and

hardworking.

2 Cadets should be able to work as an officer and

takeresponsibilityabouttheirjob.

3 Cadetsshouldaimpersistenceinthecompanyand

occupation.

CadetsshouldhavesufficientEnglish

Statistical test carried out to determine reliability

of the question scales. First reliability test applied

between 4 questions “Master’s attitudes to cadets,

chiefmate’sattitudestodeckcadets,crew’sattitudes

to deck cadetsand how itfeels tobe adeck cadet”.

These questions have

same systematic scale which

was called Likert‐type scale “Very good, good,

moderate,bad andvery bad”.Cronbach’s alpha test

applied to these questions because that is one of a

commontestinLikert‐typescale.Alphavalueshould

bebetween0‐1;1meanshighestreliability(100%)and

0means

lowestreliability(0%).Thealphavaluewas

0,782 (78%). That means the questionnaire scale is

reliable.Anotheralphatestappliedbetween“Trainee

policy existence question and trainee policy

implementationquestion”.Thealphavaluewas0,921

(92%)whichmeanhighreliability.

4 RESULTSANDDISCUSSION

Maritime is a difficult and tedious

profession by

definition. Seafarers suffer from heavy weather

conditions, hard working conditions, unreasonable

workinghours(Blooretal.,2004),beingisolatedfrom

family and social life which could have negative

impact on continuity of working in this profession.

The first job practice of a deck cadet starts with

trainingonboard.Thus

suchtrainingisanimportant

(Kaidaetal.,2006;Uğurluetal.,2012)partofadeck

cadet’s professional life. Their occupational

407

perspective taking shape according to their working

andliving conditionsonboard.Iftheconditionsare

close to their expectations, their occupational

continuityisgettinghigher.

Thesurveyconfirmedthatmajorityofdeckcadets

prefer dry cargo and tanker vessels for training

onboard.Thismightbeduetothefact

thatdrycargo

and tanker type ships make up majority of the

Turkish ship market. According to 2013 official

statistics, 53% of Turkish merchant marine is dry

cargovesselswhereas15%istankervesselsand8%is

container vessels (Shipping, 2014). In terms of

navigation zones and ship tonnages, this

could be

seen deck cadets generally prefer completing their

trainingonshortseacarriers(shipsnavigatingonthe

Mediterranean sea, Black Sea and withinthe coastal

navigation).Althoughnavigationperiodisshortand

work load is heavy on short sea carrier ships, the

reviewofsurveyresultsconfirmedthatgenerallythe



shipmaster, first officer and crew have positive

attitudesandbehaviorstowardsdeckcadetsandwe

mightsaythatthiswillnothavenegative impacton

deckcadets’professionalcontinuity.

Thereviewofworkinghoursexperiencedbydeck

cadets during training confirmed that 68% worked

approximately 13 hours and less whereas

32 %

workedfor14hoursandmoreperday.Accordingto

STCWandMaritimeLabourConvention2006(MLC);

allpersonswhoareassigneddutyasofficerincharge

of a watch and those whose duties involve safety,

prevention of pollution and security duties shall be

providedwitharestperiod

ofnotlessthanminimum

of10hoursofrestinany24hourperiodand77hours

inany7dayperiod(ILO,2006;IMO,2011).Thus32%

ofdeckcadetsworkunderconditionsviolatingSTCW

conventionduringtheirtraining.Thereviewofcabin

and social opportunities on

ships stayed during

training revealed thatmore than half ofdeck cadets

did not have their own cabins, the ones having a

cabin had limited facilities such as bath, toilet,

televisionandinternetaccessaswellaslimitedsocial

life.Thesearebasichumanneedssocabinandsocial

life restrictions

 can be considered as factors having

negative impact on continuity to work on sea. The

reviewof companies’approach towards deck cadets

confirmedthatmostoftheshippingcompaniesdonot

have a certain trainee policy or deck cadets are not

informedaboutsuchpoliciesandtheyfeelslikenot

as

valuableasanofficer.Thecompanieshavingatrainee

policy have difficulty in implementing such policies

andtherelationshipbetweenthecompaniesanddeck

cadetslackefficiency.Forexample, mostofthedeck

cadetsdidnothaveorientationtrainingbeforegoing

onboard. This fact can be considered as one of



elements threatening deck cadet’s safety at sea. It is

without doubt that cadets working under all these

negative conditions will constitute a great risk in

termsofsafetyoflifeandgoodsatsea.

Thesurvey data athandrevealedthat435cadets

consideredworkingatseaforaperiod

shorterthan10

years. Thus, that can conclude, deck cadets do not

consider continuing to work for this profession.

Unsatisfactory salaries, being isolated from family

and social life, long contract terms, unreasonable

working hours  and conditions, limited social life,

difficultyofinternetandphoneaccesscanbelistedas

themost

importantfactorsimpairingcontinuityinthe

profession.Theseissues shouldbeimprovedinorder

to ensure continuity in this profession. Being

unqualifiedisthe most difficultaspect of atrainee’s

life.Thisstemsfromtheattitudethatatraineewould

do any task onboard or is a joker crew who

should

adapttodoanytask.

Maritime professions are vulnerable to accidents

duetoitsinherentdangers.Theaccidentsthatmight

take place might result with loss of manpower by

having negative impact on human health and

sometimes can even cause deaths. The risk of

accidents increases while the qualities of

 training of

seafarerslower.

Accordingtothecompanies’interviews50%(5/10)

of companies describe deck cadets as “Cadet is a

candidateofficer,inadditiontolearninghe/shemust

take responsibility in some subjects.”, 20% (2/10) of

companies describe deck cadets as “Cadet have to

workasanofficer, he/shealways

beastepforward.”.

Therefore, companies expect some additional

vocationalskillsfromdeckcadets.Traineesshouldbe

able to feel responsible, to meet those expectations.

For this purpose, necessary to provide equivalence

betweenauthorityandresponsibility,itisoneofthe

basicprinciplesofmanagement.Companiesʹtraining

andpersonnel departments should

prepare a trainee

policytogetherandtoprovideimplementationofthis

policy.Thustraineesworking  conditions,dutiesand

responsibilities will be clearly certain, so they feel

self‐confident, responsible and they will gain

professionalstance.

5 CONCLUSION

The findings and results presented that seafarers’

occupational continuity shouldnot be considered

as

national issues only. Unfortunately, these issues are

commonproblemoftheentiremaritimecommunity. 

Improving the current conditions is a necessity for

ensuring safe operations at sea and continuity.

Trainingperiodsarethefirststepfordeckofficersto

meet their profession. Improvement of social

opportunities and working conditions are

 very

important for encouraging deck officer candidates.

Because, increasing the quality of professional

seafarerswillbeabletoensurecontinuity.

As a result, recommendations to increase

occupationalcontinuitycanbelistedasfollows.

1 To provide easy and cheap communication with

landandinternetaccess,

2 Social opportunities should be

improved; TV,

videogameroom,gym,sauna,pooletc.

3 Contract periods should be shortened, obey the

STCW and International Labour Organization

(ILO) regulations about working and resting

hours. Also inspectors should examine working

hours more carefully, in order to increase

applicabilityofregulations.

4 Companiesshouldhaveastandardtrainee

policy,

thesepoliciesshouldbeimplementedonshipsand

practices should be monitored by official

authorities,

5 Preparing a job description for cadets, specifying

daily working hours of the trainee on deck and

bridgeandrespectingsuchjobdescription,

408

6 Implementing policies that will eliminate the

views considering a trainee as manpower on the

ship,

7 Cadetsshouldbeseen asacrewmember,andto

providetousetheiroccupationalrights.

8 Consideration should be given to the team

communication. Face‐to‐face communication

environmentsshouldbecreated

toestablishgood

relationship between crew members. Carried on

board; barbecue parties, birthday celebrations,

tabletennistournamentsetc.

9 Safe manning should have arranged for more

trainees,

10 Training  on occupational health and safety must

be compulsory for each crew member on board,

for shipping companies and for training

institutions,

11 Livingconditionsonboardshouldbeorganizedin

accordance with the MLC 2006 Convention. The

ship and company audits conducted on this

subject should be more frequent. Whereby the

workingconditionsonboardwillbecomeeligible.

Itwillbeusefulifthisstudyisfollowingbyfuture

studiesofferingnew

alternativesaimedatrendering

thenaval  sector moreattractivefornew and current

seamenandensuringoccupationalcontinuity.

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