17
1 INTRODUCTION
TheConventionontheInternationalRegulationsfor
PreventingCollisionsatSea,1972(COLREGs)entered
intoforcein1977.BesidesCOLREGs,IMOalsoissued
a series of resolutions and codes related
implementation of COLREGs. Additionally, many
institutions provide intensive and extensive training
andeducationprogrammesforcorrectapplicationof
COLREGs.
A large number of accidents over the last few
years,with100sfatalities,likePiperAlfa,HeraldFree
Enterprise, Estonia and Scandinavian Star have
drawnattentiontohumanfactor,theroleoftraining,
theroleoftheincidentcommander,decisionmaking
under stress and the culture/climate in maritime
safety
(Havold, 2013). The human factor is the most
important element of the merchant shipping which
directly affects the safety and security at sea.
Although there are many factors endangering the
safety at sea, the common assertion is that most
accidentsareemanatedfrompoortraining.Therefore,
aneffectiveMaritimeEducationand
Training(MET)
programme is an important requirement to improve
seafarers’ quality for the future. Seafaring is an
international profession and that is the reason why
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
establishes common standards for seafarers’
educationandtraining.
The studies over the investigation reports of sea
accidentsprove that 60 %
of accidents are due to
human error, 19% structure/mechanical failure and
10% equipment failure (MAIB, 2007)(Figure 1).
Although we do not have a reliable study on
accidents directly related to the application of the
COLREGs, we can assume that most of the human
errorrelatedaccidentsarecloselyconnectedwiththe
evasive maneuvers to avoid the collision which are
insufficient to eliminate the risky situations. The
structure/mechanicalfailureandequipmentfaultscan
Further Studies On The COLREGs (Collision
Regulations)
E.Demirel&D.Bayer
PiriReisUniversity,Tuzla,Istanbul,Turkey
ABSTRACT: The collision risk is one of the major reasons threaten safety at sea. The Collision Regulations
(COLREGs)istheessentialinternationalarrangementwhichregulatestherulesoftheroadsatsea.Beingalsoa
legaldocument,thelanguageoftheCOLREGsisnotso
apparentfortheendusers(navigators)andthiscauses
some misunderstandings and ambiguity. Many discussions on COLREGs have continued since its first
submission related to its application. It seems unlikely to make a radical change on COLREGs even on its
mannerofintroduction.Soitwouldbebettertoimprove
newmethodstoensuretheeffectiveuseofCOLREGs
inparticularinthefieldofeducationandtraining.Itisaimedtoreviewtheexistingstudies onCOLREGsand
recentimprovementsinthemaritimeeducation,andinvestigateapplicableandreliablesolutionstoreducethe
negativeimpactsexperiencedduringtheapplicationof
theCOLREGs.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 9
Number 1
March 2015
DOI:10.12716/1001.09.01.02
18
also contribute to the ambiguity on the bridge and
couldbemainreasonsofaccidentswiththeirspecial
featurestoincreasehumanerror.
Figure1.ReasonsforAccidents(Source:Ziarati,2011)
Thereforestudyingtheroleofthehumanerrorsin
sea accidents is a must case to establish a model
which will enable us to reduce the number of
accidentseventually.
A study made in 2012 shows that the foremost
causes of the ship losses are stranding, grounding,
sinkingorsubmerging(See
Figure2).Allthosecauses
somehow are related to the human factor.But the
personnelorcrewfailuresmaynotbetheonlyonesto
bebla medforhumanerrors.Aneducationortraining
methodaimedtoreachoneessentialpurposemaybe
a multiplying factor contributing to all occurrences.
Thefigureshowsonly8percentoftheshiplossesare
related just for collisions. But we have no sufficient
information on the numbers of the groundings,
machineryorhulldamageswhicharehappenedasa
result of evading maneuvers recommended/ordered
bytheCollisionRegulations.
Figure2.Causesforshiplossesin2012(Source:Lloyd’sList
IntelligenceCausalityStatistics)
The statistical analysis shows that observed
behaviour is not haphazard, even if it cannot be
predicted from the formal rules (Chauvin, 2008).
Accidentalcausesofagroundedandfounderedships
could be depending on human factors mostly
misapplicationofdifferentrulesandregulations.This
determination draws our attention on training to
improve
human behavior in case of emergency
situations.
Currently,shipsnowadayshaveanumberofcrew
which is much more reduced than the number
previously used on board since many functions are
designated to the automation systems today. An
Officer of the Watch (OOW) who is mostly alone is
responsiblefrom
handlingtheshipalongwithmany
other responsibilities and taking all measures listed
in the anti‐collision check list solely.The OOW is
expected to inform the master, the crew and other
ships in the vicinity by all means of the
communicationandassessthesituationindueregard
withrespect
toCOLREGstostartevasiveactionsin
case of an emerging close‐quarters situation. That
means OOW should be trained perfectly on the
“application of the COLREGs” to be able to give
quick, correct and on‐time response to developing
collision risks. The critical success factor is the high
level
knowledge of the OOW on the applications of
the collision regulations supported with a serial of
practice opportunities based on different type of
accident scenarios. Such a formative and holistic
training must prepare the officers to respond
appropriatelytoemergencysituationsandcontribute
to elimination ofcollision risks which may have
fatalresultsforship,humanbeingsandenvironment.
The STCW (Standards for Training, Certification
and Watchkeeping) Convention has moved from
beingknowledge‐basedtocompetence‐basedtraining
and assessment, where clear outcome‐based
standards of competence have been established and
thetasksandskillsaredefinedintermsofoutcomes
tobeachievedtomeettoday’sindustrydemands.The
knowledge, understanding and skills needed to
ensurethatseafarersarecapableoffulfillingtheroles
expected from them on board have been clearly
defined and tabulated. Consequently, this
necessitated the detailed review and revision of all
maritime education and training programmes to
ensuretheamendmentswereclearlyreflected.Thus,
direct and significant responsibility was placed on
trainers and assessors for knowledge and skills
acquisition and demonstration of competence by
seafarers for safe operation of ships and, by default
formaritimesafety(Milhar,2014).
IMOModelCoursesareframeworksformaritime
educationproviders
todeveloptheirtrainings based
ontheIMOSTCW,buttheyarenotalistofconcrete
knowledge and skills. Even at this very moment,
many model courses are under consideration of the
IMO MSC HTW (Human Element, Training and
Watchkeeping) Sub‐Committee (IMO, 2014) and
IMLA members who were encouraged
to send
proposalsforeducationdevelopmentstudies(IMLA,
2014). A lot of creative ideas based on the best
practices will be defined to develop better training
methods for collision avoidance training for MET
institutionswhichwillalsobediscussedinthisstudy.
2 METHODOLOGY
This study aims to review the
literature on collision
regulations and the recent improvements in the
maritime education dealing with this subject, to
investigate the negative impacts experienced during
the application of the COLREGs and to bring about
19
some applicable and reliable solutions for more
effective COLREGs trainings to be discussed in
relatedmaritimeforums.
Thestudywascarriedoutinthreestages.Thefirst
stage was a literature review on maritime accidents
involving the collision regulations.Evaluating the
results of studies including reports and scientific
researcheson
thesubjectandverifyingtheresultsof
these studies were aimed in the literature review.
Second,anoverviewoftheexistingteachingmethods
and recent improvements in the maritime education
were discussed by a working group consisted of
maritimelecturerstodevelopanewteachingmethod.
Finally, applicable and reliable
solutions were
examinedtoreducethenegativeimpactsexperienced
during the application of the COLREGs to lead
proposals.
3 DISCUSSION
3.1 CollisionRegulations(COLREGs)andExisting
Studies
TheaimoftheCollisionRegulations(COLREGs)isto
establishrulestoavoidcollisionatsea.Theincreasing
numberofshipsandcondensedtraffic
onthesealines
of communication makes the COLREGs rather
important for safety of the seas. The increasing
number of the accidents with fatal results and
unbearabledamagetoenvironmentsetstheattention
of the maritime community on the applications and
adequatenessofthissignificantregulation.
The language introduced in
the COLREGs is
mostlybasedonthelegalterminologyandsometimes
not so clear and understandable for seafarers. As
being a legal document, it is not easy to change the
introduction style of theCOLREGs and any attempt
to simplify the language long used may cause
additionalproblemswhenacollision
caseappearsin
the legal courts. Although there have been many
discussions about collision regulations and many
scientific papers were written proposing some
changesontherules,no changeshavebeenrealized
sofar.Thesetypesofdiscussionsarestillon,butno
change for the existing rules is expected
in the
foreseenfuture.
The commonly shared opinion is the COLREGs
related accidents were not due to a lack of uniform
interpretation of the rules but because of the
insufficient training on application of the existing
regulations. Nowadays the maritime community is
focused on the better training models rather than
modification
oftherulesinordertoimproveeffective
applicationoftheCOLREGs.
IMLA (International Maritime Lecturers
Association) is the largest international platform for
the discussions on the maritime education and
training(MET)andprovidesasignificantsupportto
IMOfortheimprovementofeducationquality.IMLA
is of the view
that IMO has provided a clear
COLREGs text; accordingly, relevant organizations
have developed many interpretations of these
regulations and used them in their teaching and
training activities. IMO has responded positively to
the emerging needs of improved training on
COLREGs by developing new type of training
models.
InIMLANewsletter(IMLA,
2014),itwasdisclosed
that the Maritime Safety Committee had reviewed
and provided their positive comments on the
developmentofaspecificmodel course for the 1972
Convention on the International Regulations for
PreventingCollisionsatSea(COLREGs)asproposed
by the Turkish Maritime Community “to ensure
globalstandardson
theunderstanding,interpretation
andapplicationoftheprovisionsofCOLREGsʺ.
ActuallyCOLREGsarealreadyincludedinModel
Courses 7.01 and 7.03 which are the main advisory
training programmes for Deck Officers. The
discussionsonthesedocumentsarenotbasedonthe
requirements, guidance or content of the COLREGs
training but
the teaching method and procedures.
What required now is to develop a new training
method, guidelines and material to make learning
andteachingofthissubjecteasierandmoreeffective.
This new training method should improve the
understandingofthe rules by usersandequipthem
withabetterability
toapplythe rulesinemergency
situationsatsea.
3.2 AvoidanceCollisionAttheSea(ACTs)Project
MostrecentstudyontheimprovementofaCOLREGs
training is ACTs (Avoidance Collision at the Sea)
ProjectsupportedbytheEuropeanCommission.The
projectpartnersareworkingfordevelopinganonline
training course
to improve the COLREGs training
anddetermineifnewrulesorchangestocurrentones
arenecessary(http://ecolregs.com/).
ACTsprojectgrouphascompletedasurveyonthe
questions designed to determine which rules are
difficulttounderstandandwhichrulesaremostoften
breached in real practice in addition to
check the
COLREGs knowledge of the participants from
different countries and different target groups
including amateur sailors from Bulgaria, Croatia,
Slovenia,Turkey,UnitedKingdomandSpain.
Analysis of the questionnaire results in
understanding the COLREGs rules shows that
maritime education and training lecturers have best
scoresfollowedbyseafarerswithsea
experiencewho
haveaverage15%betterscoresthanparticipantswith
noseaexperience(SeeFigure3).
Figure3.Percentageofthecorrectanswerbyeachquestion
20
As for the questionnaire analysis results, some
rulesaredifficulttounderstandfortheparticipants.
Therulesconsideredhardtounderstandaccordingto
all participants are Rules 6 (Safe speed), Rule 8
(Actiontoavoidcollision),Rule9(Narrowchannel),
Rule 10 (Traffic separation scheme), Rule 13
(Overtaking), Rule 18 (Responsibilities between
vessels) and Rule 19 (Conduct of the vessels in
restrictedvisibility)(Figure4).
Figure4. Rules are hardest to understand (No sea
experience/withseaexperience)
AccordingtoMETlecturers,ruleswhicharemost
difficult for students to understand are Rule 19
(Conduct of the vessels in restricted visibility), Rule
18(Responsibilitiesbetweenvessels),Rule10(Traffic
separation scheme), Rule 6 (Safe speed) and Rule 7
(Riskofcollision),whicharesimilartoanswersgiven
byother
participants(SeeFigure5).
Figure5.Ruleswhicharemostdifficulttounderstand
Thequestionsformaritimeeducationandtraining
lecturersshowthatover63percentofstudentshave
problemininterpretationoftherules(SeeFigure6).
Figure6. The problem in interpretation of the rules to
studentsaccordingtolecturers
This research clearly confirms that there are
significant differences in the understanding and
application of the Rules. It is concluded that the
development of new methods and methodologies is
needed for a better understanding of the Rules.
Results of the questionnaire are used to run
workshopsineachpartnercountryin
ordertoverify
the results and findings of questionnaire and gap
analysis. Workshops were held for seafarers on
merchant ships, teachers and lecturers in maritime
institutions, VTS operators, employees of the Port
authorities and pilots. Each partner prepared a
workshop report and all workshop reports were
collectedbyleadpartner.
As a partial result of the project done so far, the
followingtemporaryinferencescouldbemade:
Theexistingruleshavetobeinterpretedprecisely
so that they are understood in the same way by
everyone.
Therulesthathavepriorityovertheothershaveto
be clearly determined
and navigation officers
should be able to apply them without having a
difficulty.So thebiggerpartoftraining scenarios
shouldbebasedontheserules.
Establishing a common understanding of an
individual rule through some kind of guidelines
and standardizing the education, training and
assessment of COLREGs through
the proposed
COLREGsModelCourseareneeded.Partnersare
of the view that the COLREGs model course
shouldbeanintegralpartoftheSTCW.
In some rules, certain definition(s) should be
addedinordertoclarifytherules
Developing COLREGs e‐courseto be used with
fundamental and
cheapermeans of information
technology, rather than expensive simulators
shouldbeconsidered.
Toimprovelearningmethodologiesitissuggested
tousemultiplecasereallifestudyscenarioswhich
cover each individual rule, Court decisions for
interpretation of case studies, visual images,
simulators,CADsand3Ddynamicanimations.
A
GlobalCOLREGsonlinetestwouldbestrongly
supportedandrecommended. The test should be
takeninEnglishandinmotherlanguage.
21
3.3 GeneralConsiderationswhichHighlightFuture
Studies
Many accidents, resulting in a larger number of
fatalities during the last few years, have focused
attention on issues of maritime safety. Accident
registrationsrevealthathumanrelatedcauseshavea
largeproportion.Bylookingatculturalaspects,oneʹs
understanding of the underlying mechanisms may
leadtoapossibleriskofincreasingaccidents.Several
constructs of culture and climate have a ppeared on
national, organizational and safety levels (Havold,
2013).Theeducationandtrainingisanimportanttool
to improve safety culture but not sufficient. To
achieveimprovementofasafety culture,weneedfull
supportofthemaritimecommunitywithallaspects.
Havold(2013) also states that “To be able to reduce
the risk for accidents, there seems to be a need for
coordinationandtheculturalperspectiveseemstobe
onethatintegratesandtakesthemanydisciplinesand
multi‐level nature of accidents and safety into
account”. The maritime administrations, labour
unionsandIMOarerequiredtospendmoreeffortsto
establish new rules, regulations and procedures to
improve safety culture as well as ship‐owners are
neededtoallocatesufficientresourcestosupport.
The application of COLREGs is actually the
practice of risk assessment and risk management.
Klimczak(2007)statesthat,“TheWorkingontherisk
assessments, we can improve our risk management
plans which will help us to create our standing
checklists before accident happens
and to do list in
case of an incident”. Achieving what we need to
improvescenarios inthelightoftheexistingaccident
investigation reports is related to application of the
COLREGs,thenweshouldselectthemostapplicable
scenarios for training purposes. Based on these
selected scenarios, we should study
risk assessment
andriskanalysistechniques.
A holistic and formative course should be
designed to meet the requirements of contemporary
educationsystem.Therefore, we must decide on the
aim,objectivesandlearningoutcomesforourtraining
which will help us to decide on the content of the
programme supported with
the scenarios. The main
part of the training should be constructed on a real
timescenarioandcasestudies.
Sincemostofthebridgeoperationsystemsbecame
automatedrecently,nowadaysship handlingisvery
much dependant to the information provided by
automated systems. Considering the automation
related failures which were mentioned
earlier, this
courseprogrammeshouldalsocovertheintroductory
subjects related to basic working principa ls,
capabilities, weaknesses and limitations of the
selectedCOLREGs.
4 WORKINGGROUPSTUDYONCOLREGS
TRAININGS
A Working Group was established at Piri Reis
University to investigate and formulate possible
teachingmethodsforCOLREGscoursesdelivered
in
the maritime education institutes, between 10th and
15thofOctober2014.Thegroupwasconsistedof13
maritimelecturerswhohadseaexperiencebetween4
to18years.11ofthemhadMaster’sdegreeand2of
them had PhD degree. The group followed the
followingagenda;
Introductionof
theexistingstudiesonCOLREGs,
Discussion on the COLREGs Course Catalogs in
different MET institutes based on the UNIMET
studies which is a EU Project to unify MET
programmes(www.unimet.pro),
Introduction ofSURPASS online teaching
programme which is EU Project to improve a
trainingprogrammetoreduce
theaccidentsdueto
automationfailure(www.surpa ss.pro),
DiscussionsontheCOLREGsscenarioscreatedfor
ACTsandM’AIDERProjectwhichisaEUProject
to create accidents scenarios in support of MET
(www.maiders.pro),
Discussions on different teaching methods for
COLREGscourses,
Presentation of different teaching methods for
COLREGscourses.
The group reached the following results
(solutions) after the detailed discussions on the
subject;
Theuseofsimulatorsand practicalexerciseswill
facilitateinlearningofCOLREGrules.
To obtain better application of the rules in
emergency situations at sea, the BTM (Bridge
Team Management) and BRM (Bridge
Resources
Management) courses should be based on “near
miss collision scenarios” supported with
communicationexercises.
Inmostoccasionsthereisonlyasinglepersonon
watch on the bridge. Therefore, the training of a
singleOOWisasimportantassimulatortraining
ofabridgeteam.
The communication in
an emergency situation in
particularforacollisioncaseshouldbeincludedin
COLREGstrainingscenarios.
A particularly designed COLREGs course should
bemandatoryfordefiniteperiodsforallOOWs.
The application of COLREGs is based on three
steps;“evaluation of the situation, decision to
apply a respective
rule and taking action.” So, it
requiresnavigatorshavingaperfectknowledgeof
eachruleandbeabletodecidetheapplicationin
thelightofrespectiverule.
TheCOLREGs is directly related to safety atsea.
Not only seafarers but also maritime
administrations and ship owners should be keen
toimprovesafetycultureatsea.
The MET institutions provide basic training. But
theshipmastershaveasignificantroletoimprove
theexperienceoftheyoungofficers.Theyshould
be keen on onboard trainings and assessments.
The teaching methods improved for MET should
also be used for on
board trainings by ship
masters.
In the light of the results of the discussions, the
group decided to develop a holistic and formative
training method. In order to achieve the solutions
mentioned in the previous paragraph, an effective
andreliablemethodwasproposed.Afteritspossible
outcomes were evaluated, the group
agreed on a
training method named as “Interlinked Echelons
Training Method for COLREGs Courses” which
22
consists of four echelons; Classroom Teaching, Case
Studies,Practicewithstandalonecomputersbasedon
simple scenarios and Bridge Simulator Practices
basedonmorecomplicatedsituationsmostlysimilar
theM’AIDERtypescenarios(SeeFigure7).
Figure7. Interlinked Training Method for COLREGs
Courses
Somegroupmembershavealsoproposedalinkage
betweendifferentechelonsofthetraining,suchas a
teachermighttakethestudentstobridgesimulatorto
explain a confusing situation or use stand alone
computersbyformingabridgesimulatorsession.
Thiskindofatrainingmethodwillbettermeetthe
requirements of STCW fully by adequate use of
simulators.
ThecoursesshouldbeincludedintheIMOmodel
courses(MSC90/16/126)tobeconsideredasapartof
internationalstandards.
The method also presents some advantages such
as; better understanding of case studies, and
enhanceduseofsimulators.Itis
alsobelievedthatthe
proposed method provides more flexibility for the
lecturerstousedifferenttrainingassets.
The Interlinked Echelons Training Method could
providethefollowingadditionalbenefitsaswell;
StandAloneComputer Practice (SACP) will help
thestudentsbepreparedasOOWwhowillmake
decisionsasasingle
OOWonthebridge,
SACP will also allow application of CBA
(ComputerBasedAssessment)whichwillprovide
betterassessmentforstudent’sachievement,
The case studies will help students make better
decisions on different emerging collision
situations.
Besides,therearesomeadditionalnecessitiestobe
metaswell.
Additional lecturers to handle stand alone
computerpractisesassignmentsarerequired,
Inordertoachieveaneffectivesimulatortraining,
thereisa necessityofwhetherthe numberofthe
participatingstudentsbereducedorthenumberof
theinstructorsbeincreased,
The recommended guided learning hours in the
Model
Course7.03arerequiredtobeincreased.
As a result of this working group study, it is
decided that the results of the study should be
reflected to the COLREGs course catalogs and be
proposedtoACTsprojectteam.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Although there are many discussions on the
introduction (such
as language used) and
modifications of some rules of the COLREGs, it is
unlikely to step forward on these issues in the near
future. So it will be more useful to improve new
learningmethodsforuserstoimprove theirskillsto
ensurebetterapplicationoftherulesatsea.
The
useofsimulators and practical exercises will
facilitate learning of COLREGs rules. For better
applicationoftherulesinemergencysituationsatsea,
theBTMandBRM courses shouldbebasedonnear
miss collisions scenarios supported with
communicationexercises.
The application of COLREGs is based on
“evaluation of the
situation‐decision to apply a
respectiverule‐takingaction”.Soitrequiresnavigator
tohaveaperfectknowledgeofeachruleandbeable
to decide the application in the light of respective
rule.
The COLREGs trainings in the MET institutions
shouldbereconfiguredtocreatebetterunderstanding
forthecadets
andtopreparethemfortheirdutiesas
OOW.AspeciallydesignedCOLREGscourseshould
bemademandatoryforsomedefinedperiodsforall
OOWs.
Inmostoccasions,thereisonlyasinglepersonon
watch on the bridge. Therefore, the training of a
singleOOWisasimportantas
simulatortrainingofa
bridge team. Using of stand‐alone computers would
bebeneficialinimprovingtheskillsoftheOOWfor
actions required to be done according to the
COLREGs in emergency situations. The shipboard
training is also important to improve young OOWs
ability to react in near miss situations
and ship
masters should give more emphasis on this issue.
They should be keen on onboard training and
assessment.TheteachingmethodsimprovedforMET
may also be used for on board training by ship
masters.
The COLREGs is directly related to safety at sea.
Notonlyseafarersbutalso
maritimeadministrations
and ship‐owners should be keen to improve safety
cultureaswellasMETinstitutions.
The open access to European Union ACTs and
M’AIDERprojectsresultsmaybeusedforimproving
accidentsscenariosforCOLREGstraining.
As a result of the working group study made in
PiriReisUniversity,
aholisticandformativetraining
methodwhichconsistsoffourechelons isproposed.
To achieve many different solutions defined by the
group,aneffectiveandreliablemethod issuggested
and evaluated. This method called as “Interlinked
EchelonsTrainingMethodforCOLREGsCourses”,a
combination of “Classroom Teaching, Case Studies,
Practice
with stand alone computers and Bridge
Simulator Practices” and proposed to be taken into
considerationforfuturestudies.
23
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ThisstudyisapartofEUACTs(AvoidanceCollision
attheSea)Project.SpecialthankstoallACTsproject
partners.
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