115
1 INTRODUCTION
Traditionally,peopledefinedMaritimeEducationand
Training (MET) as an educational system which
aimed to provide seafarers for merchant vessels,
however,withthedevelopmentofshippingindustry,
itisnecessarytoredefinetheconceptionofMETfrom
a broader perspective to covermoreaspectssuchas
maritimefinance,ma
ritimesecurity,aswellassome
raremaritimedisciplinesinshippingmarkets.
Although MET in China has played a significant
role for its shipping industry which was among the
world’s top five by the end of 2012, there are still
some fatal shortcomings which may hinder the
continuous rising of Chinese ma
ritime economy. At
thepresentstage,theChineseMETfocusesmainlyon
seafarerstraining,offeringplentyofqualifiedratings,
officers, managers, as well as some teaching and
researchingstaffsforshippingindustry.However, if
looking through the whole shipping industry from
the broader perspective, it can be easily fixed that
MET in China st
ill at the bottom of the industrial
chain,whichmeansthatitstillhasalongwaytogoto
fill the gap between the demanding and supplying
especiallyinmaritimeservices’fields.Forthepurpose
of solving this problem, regarding departments
including government, educational institutions and
shipping companies should on one hand carry out
theirowndutiesrespectively,andontheotherhand
trytocollaborat
ewitheachotherasmuchaspossible.
Only in this way can keep triggering the engine of
Chineseshippingindustry,makingitfrombigtoreal
powerful.
2 THEDEFINITIONOFMET
Itwast
raditionallysuggestedthatthefirstschoolof
MET was established by Infante Henry in 1419 [1],
since then, MET was gradually developed and
providedenormous talents for shipping industry. In
the early stage, the function of MET was to train
ratings and officers for naval and merchant ships;
aft
erwards, with the continuous expanding of
Research on Maritime Education and Training in
China: A Broader Perspective
W.H.Dong
M
erchantMarineCollegeShanghaiMaritimeUniversity,China
ChinaMaritimeCenter,GreenwichMaritimeInstitute,UK
ABSTRACT: China’s Maritime Education and Training (MET) has been providing numerous talents for its
shipping industry in the past decades. However, the traditional Chinese MET emphasized more on crew
trainingbutignoredshippingservices’fields.Thispaperfirst
lyredefinestheconceptofMETfromabroader
perspective,thenoutlinesthecurrentstatusquoofMETinChinafromthenewbroaderangle,consequently
analyzes the main problems of Chinese MET, and finally proposes suggestions for regarding governments,
institutions, as well as shipping companies, aiming to offer valuable ideas during the process of decision‐
ma
king.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 8
Number 1
March 2014
DOI:10.12716/1001.08.01.13
116
shipping industry, MET was required to cultivate
high‐quality maritime manpower at all levels, it
meant that not only qualified seafarers who had
excellent ship handling skills were needed, but also
peoplewhohadgoodtheoreticalfoundation,aswell
asstrongadaptabilityandpotentialwhichmadethem
outstanding personnel in
maritime teaching,
researching and management, should also be
included [2]; presently, shipping markets are no
longer limited to transportation and management as
before, but has progressed to be a giant industry
which covers more aspects including maritime
finance,brokerage,law,insurance,etc,inthiscase,it’s
bettertobroadenthe
conceptionofMETtomeetthe
demandsoftalentsforshippingindustry.Thispaper
redefines the conception of MET as an educational
system whose objective is to cultivate people to be
competentinareasofshipbuildingandmaintaining,
ship operation, maritime management and services
(including maritime finance, maritime brokerage,
maritime
law, maritime insurance, etc), as well as
maritimeteachingandresearching,etc.
3 METINCHINA
The Chinese shipping industry has been surging in
thelastthreedecadeswiththespeedydevelopingof
economy, together with the corresponding MET
whichprovidedqualifiedmaritimehumanresources.
Asperthenewdefinition,
theChineseMETgenerally
comprises three parts: typical MET which focus on
seafarers’ education and training, maritime services’
education, and other education and training on rare
subjectssuchasmaritimearchaeology.
3.1 TypicalChineseMET
ThetypicalChineseMETisresponsibleforeducating
people to be qualified seafarers and maritime
managers
in shipping companies, as well as some
teachingandresearchingstaffsinregardingmaritime
colleges and institutes. In the past decade, typical
Chinese MET cultivated about 195 000 maritime
graduates at different levels [3], by the end of 2012,
registeredcrewseducatedbythetypicalChineseMET
hasreachedup
to1039552whichcovers10.3%ofthe
world’s ship officers and ratings [4]. During the
process of expanding, the typical Chinese MET has
gradually developed to be a multi‐level educational
system which generally comprises the following
types.
Higher MET which integrates vocational MET
withdegreeeducation.Itisnormallyafouryear’s
“consistency” program compared to the
“sandwich” mode. Students are expected to
developanunderstandingofelementsofmaritime
theory and the expertise of maritime practice by
goingthroughbasiccoursessuchasmathematics,
computer skills,
maritime English, etc, and
specialized courses, accompanied by STCW
(International Convention on Standards of
Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for
Seafarers) training for ship officers. During the
processofcultivating,theschooltakesresponsible
for teaching, training, and courses examination,
while MSA (China Maritime Safety
Administration)forsupervisionandevaluationof
STCW
training. Only if those who finish with all
courses and training, as well as on board
practicing which lasts for about one month
provided by the school and MSA are eligible to
take exams of Ship Officer’s Certificates of
Competency before graduation. People who pass
the exam will not only
get their diploma and
bachelor’s degree in maritime sector, but also a
qualified testing score paper to indicate their
qualificationstobeashipofficer.Byholdingthis
paper,alongsidewithmorethan12monthscadet
experience on board ship after graduation, they
will finally get the real Ship Officer’s Certificates
ofCompetencyissuedbyChinaMSA.Mostofthe
graduates are expected to be ship officers,
managers in shipping companies, while others
maybecometeachingandresearchingstaffsaftera
higherlevelstudyinmasterordoctorprogram.
Presently,thereare15higher METcolleges and
institutes [5] in China,
providing hundreds of
senior shipping professionals for shipping
industry, table 1 shows the recruitments in the
pastfiveyears.
Table1.NumberofRecruitmentsfrom2008to2012(Higher
MET)
_______________________________________________
Year2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
_______________________________________________
No.4604 4589 4475 5723 5271
_______________________________________________
DataSource:ChinaMSA
SeniorVocationalMETwhichconcentratesonship
officer’straining.DifferentfromtheHigherMET,
SeniorVocationalMETaimstotrainindividualsto
be ship officers who are going to rely on the
expertiseandprofessionalismofnavigation,Itwill
take 3 years to finish this program during which
students are
mainly focus on ship handling and
management, as well as STCW training, but not
too much basic theory learning. Likewise the
Higher MET, China MSA is responsible for
supervisingandassessingthequalityofeducation
andtrainingtomakesurethefutureofficersmeet
the demands of STCW. Individuals who finish
withtheircoursesandSTCW trainingareableto
apply for the examination of Ship Officer’s
Certificatesof Competency before leaving school,
once passing, the passing result, combined with
above 12 months cadet’s sea experiences will
reward them of real ship officer’s certificates.
AccordingtostatisticsreleasedbyChinaMSA,
the
number of Senior Vocational MET colleges and
institutes scattered across China was 25 at 2010,
becomingthemainsourceofChineseshipofficers,
table2showsthestatistics:
Table2.NumberofRecruitmentsfrom2008to2012(Senior
VocationalMET)
_______________________________________________
Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
_______________________________________________
No. 9182 11026 12829 13050 9683
_______________________________________________
DataSource:ChinaMSA
JuniorVocationalMETwhichfocusontrainingof
shipratings.ChineseJuniorVocationalMETisthe
mainsourceofratingswhichareveryessentialfor
117
ship handling. The entry qualification for this
programconstitutestwoelements:oneisphysica l
requirements of STCW; the other is 9 years’
compulsory education in which the 3 years high
school studies are not included compared to the
previoustwotypesofMET.The3yearsprogram
will equip individuals with det
ailed knowledge
andactivitiesofcrewsworkingonboardships.To
achieve this objective, they will firstly conduct
regarding STCW training, then go through some
basic shipoperation theories, and finally exercise
their professional skills in corresponding subjects
such as steering practicing for helmsman.
Similarly,onlyif those whosuccessfully pa
ssthe
examination of Rating’s Certificates of
Competency, are eligible to apply for Rating’s
Certificates of Competency after practicing on
boardshipsmorethan6months[6].Asthemain
supplierofshipratings,ChineseJuniorVocational
MET schools increased with the number of 28 at
2010 and delivered lots of ratings. Table 3
describesthesituation:
Table3.NumberofRecruitmentsfrom2008to2012(Junior
VocationalMET)
_______________________________________________
Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
_______________________________________________
No. 15472 18318 23324 15767 7349
_______________________________________________
DataSource:ChinaMSA
Besides the three major Typical MET modes
mentioned above, there are still some other MET
modes which include two‐years’ MET for becoming
ship officers quickly without diploma, one‐year’s
quicktrainingtobeofficersforthosegraduatesfrom
universities,andcorrespondenceMETforpromoting
diplomainmaritimefields(e.g.fromjuniorcollegeto
undergraduate), etc. In 2012, there were 40 schools
across China to provide such form of MET. Table 4
illust
ratesthenumberofrecruitmentsinthepastfive
years:
Table4.NumberofRecruitmentsfrom2008to2012
_______________________________________________
Mode2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
_______________________________________________
2YearsMET7876 5240 5017 4804 2799
1YearGraduates1524 1417 1353 1025 485
CorrespondenceMET 5652 5588 6971 3544 2573
_______________________________________________
DataSource:ChinaMSA
In addition, Further MET which provides further
trainingforbothofficersandratingsarealsomustbe
included. It is compulsory for seafarers to promote
their maritime knowledge and skills periodically to
meet the requirements of STCW, hence making the
FurtherMETtobeoneofthemajormode.Itsupplies
individualswithma
ritimetrainingsatalllevelsfrom
rating to captain who will decide the very level to
participateaspertheirexperiencesandfurthercareer
developmentdemands.
3.2 ChineseMaritimeServices’Education
China has made great achievement in shipping
hardware construction such as ships, ports, cargoes,
etc. Specifically, by the end of 2012, Chinese fleet
(owned and cont
rolled) has increased to 10.1% of
worldtotal,andglobalseabornetradeshareincluding
importandexportreached19%allovertheworld[7],
making 7 ports in China to be world’s top 10
throughout ports at the same year [8]. To keep
developingshippingindust
ryinahealthyandstable
way, there must be some strong supports from
maritime services’ education whose function is to
cultivate talents of maritime services in maritime
finance,maritimebrokerage,maritimelaw,aswellas
maritimeinsurance,etc.Generally,Chinesemaritime
services’educationperformsasthefollowingmodes:
HigherEducationforMaritimeServices
Higher education has always been the major
sourceofhigh‐leveltalents,themaritimeservices’
sector are with no exception. Presently, there are
approximately30collegesand institutesin China
providing students with maritime finance,
maritime law, and maritime economy studies at
different levels [9]. Take Shanghai Maritime
University(SMU) as an example,it sets up some
relevant ma
ritime services’ programs for
individuals based upon its historical maritime
reputation. More precisely, BSc (Bachelor of
Science) Shipping Management offers students
withknowledge and specialist skills in areas like
shipping economy, international trade,
international legislation, as well as shipping
operation, etc [10], those from thi
s major are
expected to work in the field of brokerage; BSc
Maritime Finance originated from ‘BSc
International Finance’ which was established in
1994 and changed to the present one in 2001 to
cultivate talents for shipping finance; LLB
Maritime Law are expected to provide excellent
foundat
ion for a career in international maritime
law,commerceandrelatedindustries,etc.
It will take three to four years to complete each
programme based on the credit system through
which students will get their degree once they
acquire enough course credits required by a
particular major. Generally, the first year is for
foundat
ion courses, and the remaining two to
three years are for specialized courses, people
have the right to decide how many courses they
are going to be engaged in each semester as per
theirtimetable,butallhavetopassthefinalthesis
defense on the basis of enough course credits.
Table 5 displayed the recrui
tments of each major
mentionedinthissectionofSMUinthepastfive
years.
Table5. Recruitment of Maritime Services’ Education of
SMU
_______________________________________________
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
_______________________________________________
ShippingManagement 220 206 227 195 231
MaritimeFinance 90 89 81 Unavailable
Temporarily①
MaritimeLaw158 160 146 97 141
_______________________________________________
DataSource:RecruitmentOfficeofShanghaiMaritime
University
(Note ①:Studentsarecategorizedasthemainclassof
‘Economy’untiltheend ofthesecondyearduringwhich
theycanchoosetheirownmajortobe‘MaritimeFinance’or
othermajorincludedin‘Economy’.)
School‐Enterprise Joint for Maritime Services’
Education
118
In recent years, it’s hard for higher education of
maritime services to meet the growing demands
forhighershippingtalentsbroughtbytheboomof
Chinese shipping industry both in quality and
quantity, hence the government encourages more
enterprises to train their own maritime services’
manpower,whichresultsinthe
School‐Enterprise
Joint model. On 24th March 2010, Shanghai Jiao
Tong University and Baltic Exchange signed a
Memorandum of Understanding on cultivating
higher professional personnel in maritime
brokerage and maritime finance, aiming to
provide qualified people for the establishment of
ShanghaiInternationalShippingCenterbymeans
of “International Experiences, Chinese
Requirements, Real Case Study and Bilingual
Teaching”model[11].Besides,on25thNov.2011,
DalianMaritimeUniversity collaboratedwithFar
East Horizon Company to nurture maritime
financial talents at a master level, trying to offer
highershippingfinancialpersonnel[12].
FurtherMaritimeServices’Education
One ofthe most reasonable factors which restrict
the development of Chinese higher maritime
services’talentsisthehighthreshold.Tobeareal
international maritime services’ talent, the four
elementsmustberequired:(a)adequatemaritime
knowledge and background; (b) English
proficiency; (c) global perspective;
(d) worthy
experiences.Andtoachievethesegoals,onemust
study continuously both in working and spare
time.Correspondingly,furtherstudycollegesand
institutessuchas Shanghai AdvancedInstituteof
InternationalShipping(SAIIS)wereestablishedfor
thosewhoareeagertobeoutstandinginmaritime
services’sectors.Foundedin2012,SAIIS
launched
Shipping Financial EMBA (Executive Master of
Business Administration) Course with its first
phase of approximately 30 students on 6th Dec.
2013, and will release more programmes in the
near future. Teachers in SAIIS are globally
recruited from some distinguished universities
and institutes such as Cambridge University and
CassBusiness
School[13].
3.3 RareMaritimeDisciplineEducationinChina
Chinesemaritimeregardingeducationcurrentlyfocus
on many common areas including typical seafarers
training, maritime law education, and shipping
management, etc, yet, those rare but significant
disciplines such as maritime archaeology, maritime
sports, and hydrographic surveying, etc, are rarely
involved.Fortunately,few
collegesandinstitutesare
conscious of the adverse situation and start
establishingsuchkindofmajorstomeetthedemands
of markets. For example, Wuhan Institute of
Shipbuilding Technology launched a programme
named Yacht Design and Production, offering
knowledgeandskillsina wildrangofsectorsrelated
to yacht
including yacht materials andmanufacture,
yacht engineering systems, yacht design and
productiontechnology.
4 MAINPROBLEMSOFCHINESEMET
Although Chinese MET made great contribution to
the shipping industry both in China and overseas
sinceitsfirstmodernshippingdiscipline established
atShanghaiin1909,therestillsomeissuesshouldbe
concerned.
For one thing, from the typical Chinese MET
aspect, the average enrollment of students is
numerous,reaching43334singlesannuallyinthepast
five years, which is strongly contrary to the lack of
funding, experimental facilities and teaching staffs,
leading to a relatively lower quality of graduates.
Takethe
teacher‐studentratioinSMUforexample,it
steps over the bottom line of 1:18 to a level of
approximately 1:25. According to a survey for 48
maritimeschoolscarriedoutin2011,andtaking10%
annuallygrowingrateintoconsideration,thepresent
average government funding for maritime students
are250
poundspereacheveryyear,amongwhichthe
amountof highereducation are 580, with the senior
andjunior vocational education 140, 20 respectively.
Ifplusthetuition,the number isgoingtobe 870 on
average [14]. For another thing, the curriculums are
apparently heavy on theory and light
on practice
especially for on board practicing procedure during
which the school is only responsible for little
proportionbutleaveovermoretothecompanyafter
graduation,itconsequentlyleadstoanincreasing of
timeconsumingofthecultivatingcircle,eventosome
extentresultinanincompletecreweducationprocess
forthosewhohavenochancetoworkonboardships,
causing a huge waste of maritime educational
resources,aswellasmaritimetalents.Moreover,there
are sorts of further educational programmes for
seafarers, but almost all of them are concentrate on
direct promotion of crew rankings from lower to
higher level, few working on a transitional career
developmentfromsea toshore, whichisreallyagreat
loss to crews and shipping companies because the
extraordinaryexperiencestheyobtainedfromseaare
quitevaluableforboththemselvesandshippingfirms
onland‐basedposition.
Viewing from the maritime services’ education
dimension, problems are more complicated. In the
first place, the quantity of regarding schools,
disciplines and corresponding students is quite far
smallcomparetothehugeshippingmarketofChina,
reasons for this phenomenon are multiple, one is
becausetheChinesenationalmaritimestrategyfocus
more on the hardware construction
than software
circumstancesinthepastseveraldecades,theotheris
the lack of historic maritime culture which would
have brought more individuals understanding and
getting into shipping industry. Secondly, the quality
of maritime services’ educational components
includingteachers,studentsandcurriculumsdoesnot
really meet the requirements of the speedy
developing of shipping market. For teachers, the
characteristics of maritime services require a
globalizedperspectiveandrelevantfieldbackground
whichtheydon’treallyhavemore;andforstudents,
English has become the biggest obstacle for their
career development no matter how hard they are
doing; as for the curriculums arranging
and
implementation,almostallschoolsaretryingtomake
theircoursesall‐embracingineverymajor,aimingto
119
produce omnipotent graduates in maritime fields,
whichfinallyleadstoaoppositeconsequence.
In the particular rare maritime discipline
educationarea,Chinaplaysaninfantrolealloverthe
worldandstillhasalongwaytogo.
5 SUGGESTIONANDPREDICTION
1 To resolve those problems mentioned above, not
only should all regarding units including
government, schools, enterprises, as well as the
whole society perform their duties correctly, but
alsosomemeasuresorreformsshouldbetaken.
2 Increasing Funding. As can be seen from the
statisticslistedbefore,althoughthegovernmentis
gradually aware of the important of
maritime
sectoryearbyyear,fundsformaritimeeducation
whoseparticularitydetermines more money than
other normal majors still remain at a very low
level.Thusthegovernmentshouldtakethereality
intoconsiderationandallocatemorecapitaltothis
field in order to bring more facilities and more
chance of
practicing which may improve the
qualityofgraduatesdirectly.
3 Adjusting Strategy. The development of Chinese
shipping industry needs strong support from
maritimeservices’talents,butmaritimeeducation
in China are staying in operating‐centered level,
hindering the balance of maritime manpower
markets in which seafarers are far more than
enoughwhilehighermaritimeservices’peopleare
short. Based on this situation, the government
oughttochangethemaritimeeducationalstrategy
opportunely to fulfill the demands of shipping
industry. Specifically, on one hand, lowering the
ratiooftypicalChineseMET, ontheotherhand,
raisinginvestmentofmaritimeservices’education
bothonpersonnelandfinancialresources.
4 Modifying Curriculums. The curriculums of
Chinese MET focus more on theory learning but
less on practicing which is critical to educating
shipping talents. It is necessary for schools to
reform their course structures, and to penetrate
more experimental sections into routine teaching
and
learning.Inaddition,providingteacherswith
more opportunities of front line to accumulate
their practical experiences should be a good
solution.
5 AcceleratingCooperation.School‐Enterprisemode
has been recognized as an efficient way in
maritime education. In the first stage, regarding
companies should propose their conception of
demandsformaritime
talentsregularlyinorderto
deepen schools’ understanding of qualified
people, at the same time providing schools with
more funding and practice opportunities. In the
second place, schools should perfect the
cultivating proposal and strengthen teacher’s
professionalism gradually as per enterprises’
suggestion, so as to enhance the qualities of
graduates.
Moreover, both sides can even try the
‘ordering’ mode to accelerate collaboration
betweeneachother.
6 Improving Further Education. Well further
maritimeeducationallinkingsystemisuniquefor
improvingthequalityofshippingtalents.Onone
hand, it provides seafarers who are willing to
work ashore with better choices, maximizing the
usage of their sufficient sea experiences; on the
otherhand,itbecomesanimportanttalentssource
of maritime services’ field whose threshold are
higher than normal subjects. Therefore, the
government and society should set up more
furthermaritimeeducationalinstitutestofulfillthe
maritimeeducationalsystem,andexitingcolleges
and
institutesshouldalsodesignandlaunchmore
proper programmes for further maritime
education according to the requirements of
shippingmarket.
7 Disseminating Culture. To large extent, people’s
interest in the culture of a particular field
determines the will of joining, but it seems that
peopleinChinaknowlittleaboutmaritime
sector
unlessthey participatinginoccasionally.It’s vital
for government to produce maritime videos and
other types of advertising, demonstrating more
details about shipping industry to the whole
society.Furthermore,by utilizingsomeparticular
festivals such as Chinese Navigational Day
celebrated on 11
th
July every year, people can
organize a variety of activities, aiming to
disseminate maritime cultures to individuals
acrossthecountry.
6 CONCLUSION
This article attempts to provide a comprehensive
overviewofmaritimeeducationandtraininginChina
fromabroaderviewpointbyredefinetheconceptof
MET.Byillustratingits
presentstatus from different
dimensions, and describing disadvantages from
differentviews,wecanacquirethat ChineseMET is
stillremainatthefirststageofmaritimeeducational
system. To alter this unfavorable phenomenon,
governmentandschool,aswellasthewholesociety
should on one hand implement their duties
cooperatively and
on the other hand to carry out
reforms in defective aspects including funding,
strategy and teaching mode, etc, triggering Chinese
METdevelopingtobemorecomprehensivewithhigh
quality.
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