421
1 SUMMARY
Nitrogen oxides emitted to the atmosphere, besides
having a natural origin, also occur due to human
activities. Although anthropogenic emissions are
quantitatively comparable to natural emissions, its
impactontheenvironmentishigherbecausetheyare
produced in very specific areas of the planet. This
results in high
local concentrations of NOx, with
consequent damage to human health and the
environment.
ThispaperismadeNOxpollutionemittedbyport
auxiliaryvessels,specificallybyharbourtugs,dueto
its unique operating characteristics of operation,
require a large propulsion power changes
discontinuously,alsopossesssomepeculiartechnical
characteristics, large
tonnage and high propulsive
power, that differentiate them from other auxiliary
vesselsoftheport.
Taking into account all the above features, there
arenostudiesoftheNOxemissionengines causedby
different working regimes of power because engine
manufacturers have not measured these emissions
acrossthe rangeof operating
power, butusually we
onlyreportthepollutionproducedbyitsenginestoa
maximumcontinuouspower.
There is also the problem with the ports that are
locatedwithinanurbancore.
Theʺport‐cityʺ,thatkindofportsthatco‐inhabita
city, has the biggest problem caused
by pollutants
emittedinsidetheportindustriesinstalledonitand
on its periphery, also from ships arriving and dock,
ships undocking, etc…Besides all those auxiliary
vesselsdotheirjob,24hoursaday,365daysayear,
insideofit.
These pollutants are emitted inside the port,
becauseofthe
windandotherweatherfactorsandthe
particular terrain of each territory carry the NOx to
thetown,causingenvironmentalandhealthproblems
fortheresidentpopulation.
Analysis and measurement of NOx emissions in port
auxiliary vessels
G.deMelo&J.C.Murcia
TechnicalUniversityofCatalonia,Spain
ABSTRACT:ThispaperismadeNOxpollutionemittedbyportauxiliaryvessels,specificallybyharbourtugs,
due to its unique operating characteristics of operation, require a large propulsion power changes
discontinuously,alsopossesssomepeculiartechnicalcharacteristics,largetonnageandhighpropulsivepower,
thatdifferentiate
themfromotherauxiliaryvesselsoftheport.
Takingintoaccountalltheabovefeatures,therearenostudiesoftheNOxemissionenginescausedbydifferent
workingregimesofpowerbecauseenginemanufacturershavenotmeasuredtheseemissionsacrosstherange
ofoperatingpower,butusuallyweonlyreportthe
pollutionproducedbyitsenginestoamaximumcontinuous
power.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 7
Number 3
September 2013
DOI:10.12716/1001.07.03.15
422
Thefirstgoalistoestablishthetheoreticalamount
ofnitrogenoxidesthatareemitted byaharbourtug
maneuvers performed during docking, undocking
and removal of merchant ships, depending on the
powerdevelopedbyit.Setting,therefore,atheoretical
relationship between the power developed by the
tugship during the
performance of mentioned
maneuvers and emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx)
duringthese.
Intermsoftheamountsofexhaustemissions,the
International Maritime Organization
(IMO)established air pollution caused by marine
machines using emission models based on actual
emission factors adopted from measurements
performed on the machines on board or theoretical
factors deduced from the respective equations of
chemical reactions, combined with actual fuel
consumption(basedoninternationalstatisticsoffuel
sales).
There’s been used a number of factors NOx
provided by different organisms according to the
powerandaccordingtothefuelconsumption.
Table1. EMISSION FACTOR 1: Methodology based on
vesselpower:
PistheEnginepower(kW)Engineload;NistheNumber
ofengines.
Emissionrangesformediumspeedengines.Source:Lloydʹs
Register(1995):MarineExhaustEmissionsResearch
Programme:LloydʹsRegisterEngineeringServices,London.
Table2.EMISSIONFACTOR2:Methodologybasedonfuel
consumption:
NOxemissionfactorsformedium‐speedengines.
Source:LloydʹsRegister(1995):MarineExhaustEmissions
ResearchProgramme:LloydʹsRegisterEngineering
Services,London.
Table3.EMISSIONFACTOR3:
NOxemissionfactorsformedium‐speedengines.
Source:LloydʹsRegisterofShipping(1990):MarineExhaust
EmissionsResearchProgramme:SteadyStateOperation,
London.
After obtaining these results, they can be
extrapolatedtootherportsoperatingwithatugofthe
same technical characteristics. Evaluating, therefore,
theamountsofnitrogenoxidesemissionsemitted
The second objective is to measure, in situ, the
actualemissions ofnitrogenoxides produced by the
tug. These NOx emissions
will be measured in
different ranges of power output by a gas analyzer
combustion in both tugboat propeller engines. Will
also be obtained, together with the measurement of
NOxemissions,anumberofoperatingparametersof
themainengines(enginerpm,powersuppliedbythe
engine, engine load, specific fuel consumption,
air
temperature, etc.). There will be analyzed a large
number of operations performed by the tug and
measuredtheactualtimeisthetugtoapowerduring
each docking maneuver, undocking or removal and
NOx emission values for each power. Knowing the
total number of maneuvers that made the
tug over
one year (2009) may be obtained, depending on
contaminationandpollutionpowertotaloverayear
ofoperationthetuginsidetheport.
Knowing alsothetotal number of tugs operating
intheportisabletoknowthetotalpollutionemitted
bytugsintheinnerharbourover
ayear.
The third goal is to establish a comparison
between the results obtained by using emission
factors and by taking, in situ, real NOx emissions,
approving or rejecting the use of such emission
factors for ships operating with large varia tions
power.
The fourth objective is to determine the power
range that produces more pollution, for this ship
typesthatworkwith a large variation ofpropulsive
powerperkilogramoffuelconsumed.
This analysis will be performed, in the three
methods using NOxemissionfactors,suchas actual
measurements made with the gas analyzer
combustion.ObtainingtheNOx emission amount
of
each drive motor of the tugboat, depending on the
power developed by it in relation to the amount of
fuelconsumed.
At the end, it makes a number of conclusions to
reduce or significantly mitigate NOx emissions and
emissions harmful effects of these marine engines
cause on the environment
and on the health of the
population,especiallyinport‐city.
Toobtainthepercentageofoperationsintermsof
thepowerdevelopedbythetugs,it’sbeenconducted
a study on a sample of a total of 200 maneuvers
docking,undockingandremoval.
Furthermore, it has had to make an extensive
study of the power provided by the tugboat when
423
required maneuvers in docking, undocking or
removalofmerchantshipsintheInnerHarbour.
These maneuvers sum up to 14,190 effective
minutes and can be broken down according to the
powersuppliedbythetowingvessel.
There’sbeencomputedatotalof7868minutesat
18%power,4993minutesat
34%power,870minutes
at 54% power, 106 minutes at 81% power and 353
minutesat100%power.
Figure1.Graphics.Minutesworkedaccordingtothepower
developedbytheharbourtugoperationsperformedduring
oneyear.
2 RESULTS
2.1 Comparativeresultstug“R1”
Tomake thecomparisonbetweenallresults wewill
usetheoverallresultsforthetugʺR1ʺ.
Figure2. Graphic comparison chart NOx emissions (NOx
kg/h)ofthetugʺR1ʺ,usingtheresultsobtainedbyusingthe
three emissionfactors and the results obtained by the gas
analyzercombustion.
Figure3. Graphic comparison chart NOx emissions (NOx
kg/h)ofthetugʺR1ʺ,usingtheresultsobtainedbyusingthe
three emissionfactors and the results obtained by the gas
analyzercombustion.
2.2 Comparativeresultstug“R3”.
Tomake thecomparisonbetweenallresults wewill
usetheoverallresultsforthetug“R3”.
424
Figure4. Graphic comparison chart NOx emissions (NOx
kg/h)ofthetugʺR3ʺ,usingtheresultsobtainedbyusingthe
three emissionfactors and the results obtained by the gas
analyzercombustion.
Figure5.GraphiccomparisonchartNOxemissions(NOxkg
/h)ofthetugʺR3ʺ,usingtheresultsobtainedbyusingthe
three emissionfactors and the results obtained by the gas
analyzercombustion.
2.3 Comparativeresultstug“R6”.
Tomake thecomparisonbetweenallresults wewill
usetheoverallresultsforthetug“R6”.
Figure6. Graphic comparison chart NOx emissions (NOx
kg/h)ofthetugʺR6ʺ,usingtheresultsobtainedbyusingthe
three emissionfactors and the results obtained by the gas
analyzercombustion.
Figure7. Graphic comparison chart NOx emissions (NOx
kg/h)ofthetugʺR6ʺ,usingtheresultsobtainedbyusingthe
three emissionfactors and the results obtained by the gas
analyzercombustion.
425
2.4 Comparativeannualemissionstug
Below is the comparison table of annual NOx
emissionsfromtugtypeʺR1ʺ,ʺR3ʺandʺR6ʺinterms
ofthepowersuppliedtoperformtowingma neuvers.
Table.AnnualNOxemissions(kgNOx/year)ofthetugtype
ʺR1ʺ. Using to calculate the 3 emission factors and the
values obtained in situ with gas analyzer combustion
ʺTESTO350‐S”.
Table.AnnualNOxemissions(kgNOx/year)ofthetugtype
ʺR3ʺ. Using to calculate the 3 emission factors and the
values obtained in situ with gas analyzer combustion
ʺTESTO350‐S”
Table.AnnualNOxemissions(kgNOx/year)ofthetugtype
ʺR3ʺ. Using to calculate the 3 emission factors and the
values obtained in situ with gas analyzer combustion
ʺTESTO350‐S”.
Figure8. Comparison I annual NOx emissions (kg
NOx/year) of harbour tugs typeʺR1ʺ, typeʺR3ʺ and type
ʺR6ʺ. Using the 3 to calculate emission factors and the
values obtained in situ with gas analyzer combustion
ʺTESTO350‐Sʺ.
Figure9. Comparison II annual NOx emissions (kg
NOx/year) of harbour tugs typeʺR1ʺ, typeʺR3ʺ and type
ʺR6ʺ. Using the 3 to calculate emission factors and the
values obtained in situ with gas analyzer combustion
ʺTESTO350‐Sʺ.
426
Figure10. Comparison III annual NOx emissions (kg
NOx/year) of harbour tugs typeʺR1ʺ, typeʺR3ʺ and type
ʺR6ʺ. Using the 3 to calculate emission factors and the
values obtained in situ with gas analyzer combustion
ʺTESTO350‐Sʺ.
3 CONCLUSIONS
It is found that the percentage of nitrogen oxides
emissionscalculatedemissionfactorNo.1(4.25∙10‐3
∙P1,15∙N=kgNOx/h)andNo.3 (13.8gNOx/kWh)
are higher than those calculated with the emission
factorNo.2(59kgNOx/tfuelconsumed).
Theemissioncomputeddifferent
emissionfactors
fromtheminimumrangemachine(18%loadand ≈
431kW)tofullspeedrange(100%loadand ≈ 2400
kW),totherangesoflow(34%loadand ≈ 816kW),
medium (54% load and ≈ 1293 kW) and three
quarters (81% load and ≈ 1944 kW)
is slightly
increased.Itisfoundthatthenitrogenoxideemission
inkgNOx/h,isslightlyloweratlowpowersandasit
increases engine power, increases the amount of
nitrogenoxideemissionsgradually,reachingava lue
maximumatfullpower(2400kW).
Measurements of nitrogen oxide emissions
analyzedin
situwithcombustiongasesequipmentto
the same power range, we show a graph with the
samebehaviourfordifferentpowersofwork,except
for the maximum power (100% charging and 2400
kW). Said emission (kg NOx/h) at full power
undergoes a slight tendency compared to the other
recessive measured emission
values and therefore
doesnotextendthebehaviourandgradualincreasing
ofnitrogenoxidesemissionsatfullpowerarepresent
whenusingissuethreefactors.
Thevaluesofnitrogenoxideemissionsobtainedin
situ gas analyzer combustion tugs are similar in all
models analyzed tugboat (tug typeʺR1ʺ, typeʺ
R3ʺ
andtypeʺR6ʺ).
IfweanalyzetheNOxemissionvalues(kgNOx/t
comb.)Obtainedinsitugasanalyzercombustionand
comparedwiththosecalculatedwiththethreegiven
emission factors showed that all emission graphs
followasamebehaviour.Theemissionfactornumber
3 is the reaching values higher
NOx emission.
Comparing the NOx emission factor between No.1
andNo.2,weseethatNOxemissionsarehigherwith
theemissionfactornumber2inthelowpowerrange
andlowerintherangeofmediumtohighpower.
ThemeasuresofactualNOxemissions(kgNOx/t
comb.)
Made in situ gas analyzer combustion and
calculated emission factor No. 3, we show a graph
withthesamebehaviourfordifferentpowersofjob.
This NOx emission maximum power, also
experiences a slight recessionary trend compared to
other measured emission values and therefore, does
notextendthegrowingandprogressive
behaviourof
nitrogen oxide emissions at full power. There is
therefore a peak, which is reaching the maximum
emission level of NOx (kg NOx/t comb.) to 3/4 of
machine.
Therefore,theuseoftheseemissionfactorscould
begeneralizedandshouldbeusedinalessrestricted
dependingonthe
typeandpoweroftheengine,since
ithasnosignificantdeviationsbetweenthem,leading
to emission values approximate values emission of
nitrogenoxidesreal.
Performingmaneuversstatisticalstudyitisfound
that service for operational reasons, the working
harbourtugs55%oftheminimumtimemachine,35%
of the time
walking machine, 6% of the time at half
speed,1%three‐quartertimemachineand3%ofthe
timeatfullspeed.Withthesepercentagesofworking
time,andtakingthemaximumandminimumannual
pollutionusingthethreeemissionfactorsandactual
resultsobtainedinsitugasanalyzercombustion,
we
cancalculatethepercentageoftotalannualpollution
(kgNOx/year)ofthetugboatandtoconfirmthatthe
major contamination is produced by this machine
corresponding to low (42%‐39%), followed by
machinecontaminationtoaminimum(31%‐37%),at
half speed (11%‐12%), full speed (10%‐12%) and
lower
pollution produced machine three quarters
(3%).
Asaresultofthecomparisonbetweenthevalues
of nitrogen oxides emission models calculated with
emission factors and the values obtained in situ gas
analyzercombustion,wouldthatmakea smallreview
of the emission factors used to this calculation to
resemblea
moreproportionatetoactualresults.Then
wewillhaveaccurateemissionvaluesobtainedwith
emission factors that might apply to such ships. It
wouldalsobedesirabletoperformthissametypeof
measurements boat engines greater propulsion
power, in order to verify that the emission factors
used are formulated for
engines operating at higher
power.
Inordertoreducepollutionintheportsfacilities,
which would be considered as special protection
areas for the purpose of reducing nitrogen oxide
emissions, as most are located in densely populated
areas, would be needed more research in engine
427
design and technology to make them more efficient
andlesspolluting:
Promotingincreasedenergyefficiency,ieperform
more work with the same energy consumption.
Researchingin:
The design of the power transmission. The
energy can be transmitted to the propeller of
ways, by direct mechanical transmission, by
mechanical
transmission gearbox by electric
drive or electric drive means controlled rate,
reducingfrom15%to35%fuel.Drivingahigh
efficiencyisobtainedwitharotatingpropeller
at low revolutions per minute. Moreover, we
should minimize the number of propeller
blades to reduce blade surface and hence the
frictional resistance.
The propeller size will
always be limited by the design of the boat,
engine torque and draft of the port where
operating.
Improvementsofthedesignbyoptimizingthe
hull and superstructure. Normally developed
in research hydrodynamic test tanks for large
vessels.
Rate and optimization of indoor and outdoor
lighting LED technology tugʺLight‐ Emitting
Diodeʺ, reducing fuel consumption tug
auxiliaryengines.
Recoveringenergy fromthe propellerthrough
variousmechanisms:
Coaxialcontra‐rotatingpropeller(CCRP).
Consists of two propellers mounted one in
front of the other and which rotate in
opposite directions, recovering the rear
propeller
of the rotational energy which
leaves the front propeller slipstream. Rear
propellertoavoidcavitationsproblems,has
asmallerdiameterthanthefrontpropeller,
and provides a lower load to the front
propeller and therefore greater efficiency.
Savebetween10%‐15%morepowerthana
conventionalpropellerboat.
Blade wheel
or wheel freewheeling Grim.
Additional propeller is a freely rotating
mountedbehindtheconventionalpropeller,
designedtoactasaturbineontheinsideas
on the outside propeller. This propeller
recoverssomeoftheenergylostinthewake
producedbytheconventionalpropellerand
becomes an extra push.
Improvements in
powersavingsareabout10%.
Propeller nozzle. Consists of a propeller
mountedonafixedringconduitproviding
a large mass of water supply to the
propeller, improving the operating
conditionsandefficiencyofthepropeller.Is
usedinshipthatrequirehighpowerloads,
since the duct
generates additional thrust
and reduces the power consumption by
approximately15%.
Pre‐swirl devices. Are devices placed
upstream from the propeller which is
intendedtoimprove theflow ofwater into
the propeller to achieve greater uniformity
of this, generating a pre‐swirl in the
opposite direction of rotation
of the
propellerandthereforeimprovepropulsive
efficiency. Saveapproximately 3%‐10%
power.
Integrated unit with rudder and propeller.
Provides increased propulsion efficiency
withoutlosingmaneuverabilitybyadjusting
the propeller and rudder in the town as a
singledriveunit.Powersavingisestimated
at5%.
Reduced friction in
pumps and pipes of all
tugcircuits.Performinganinternalcoatingof
these surfaces results in a reduction in
electricity demand of the auxiliary engines
between2%and4%.
Hull coatings. We know that the frictional
resistancecontributesverysignificantlytothe
totalresistance, especially at low speeds.
Therefore,
you must make well hull
maintenance to retain top performance, i.e.,
the rate obtained in connection with the
consumption of power or fuel. Also the
frictional resistance can be reduced by
modifying the wet surface of the hull,
injecting air bubbles around the hull of the
boathull.
Modificationand
optimization of various
elements of the tug, such as coolers,
turbochargers, nozzles, ventilation of the
engineroom,etc.
Maintenance and updating of the propellers
models. Consists mainly of cleaning and
polishingtheroughsurfacesofthepropeller,
asthepolishedsurfaceofthesamerepresents
adecreaseinfuel
consumptionofmorethan
3%. Also are changing propellers in small
diameter operating at high RPM, Antique
Boatbyotherlargerdiameterandoperateat
lowRPMandarebeingachievedfuelsavings
ofaround5%‐10%.
Combiningdifferent propulsion
technologies.Currentlytherearehybridtugs,
which are powered by
diesel engines when
performing maneuvers harbour towage and
electric propulsion when travelling, without
requiring large propulsion power, to the
maneuvers. These tugs reduced by
approximately 44% and NOx emissions by
30%fuelconsumption.
Using fuels with lower fuel‐cycle total emission
perunitofworkperformed,as:
Bio‐
fuels. The first generation are made from
sugar,starch,vegetableoilsoranimalfats.Bio‐
fuels some of these may be used in marine
diesel engines but present some stability
problems during storage, acidity, clogged fuel
filters, formation of wax, etc. But mixing
fractions of bio‐ derived fuels with
conventional diesel
fuel use is feasible from a
technical perspective, but must complete the
fullcompatibilitystudy.Researchisalsointhe
processofconversionofbiomasstoliquidfuels
tobeusedasmarinefuel.
Liquefiednaturalgas(LNGorLNGʺliquefied
naturalgasʺ).The LNG will be the
fuel of the
futurefortheships,sincetheiruseistoreduce
emissions of NOx, SOx andparticulate matter
also contains more hydrogen and less carbon
than diesel fuel, thus also reducing CO2
emissions. Vessels using LNG are especially
suitableiftheyhavetoworkwithinthecontrol
areasor
zones especially NOx emissions as
428
they can fulfill the Tier III emission levels
without any post‐treatment of exhaust gases.
Theonlyabsoluterequirementisthattheport
where the vessel operates have a supply of
LNGterminal,asinBarcelona,Huelva,Bilbao,
Cartagena,etc.Itisforthisreasonthatthetugs
arevery
suitableandsuitablevesselsforLNG
as fuel consumption when operating on these
ports.
Also being investigated in other fuels to be
used on tugship, such as liquefied petroleum
gas(LPGʺliquefiedpetroleumgasʺ),including
propane ethanol blended with diesel fuel, as
the E‐ diesel, Oxydiesel, oxygenated diesel,
etc..;theSymtroleumassyntheticdiesel,etc..
Usingtechnologiesofemissionreduction:
Fuel modifications includes fuel‐water
emulsionandtheuseoffuelwithlownitrogen
content.Thefuel‐wateremulsionreducesNOx
emissionsabouta20%.
Switching the use of different fuels. Using
diesel fuel with low
sulfur content and
periodicallyswitchingfuelforaverylowsulfur
(ULSDʺultralowsulfurdieselʺ).
Modifications of air humidification and load
includesreducingthetemperaturethroughthe
exhaustgasrecirculation(EGR),decreasingthe
oxygen concentration inside the cylinder and
reducing NOx in approximately 35% or the
using
internal membranes which reduce the
oxygenpartialpressurein saidair,decreasing
byabout6%inNOxemission.
Modifications in the combustion process
includesadjustingtheadvanceoffuelinjection,
compression rate, etc. to minimize the
formationofNOx.Forexample,directinjection
ofwater intotheinteriorofthe
cylindersorby
using the Miller cycle reduces the charge air
temperature. With the use of engines using
natural gas is reduced by approximately 90%
theemissionofNOx.
InordertoreduceNOxemissionsbytreatingin
theexhaustgases,thereiscurrentlya catalytic
reduction system (CRS).
Other post‐treatment
technologies are being researched and
developed, as the cleaner of NOx, the NOx
absorption traps, diesel particulate filter (DPF
ʺDiesel Particulate Filterʺ), diesel oxidation
catalysts (DOCʺDiesel Oxidation Catalystsʺ),
filters mixture catalysts (CWMFʺCatalyzed
filters Wire Meshʺ) to reduce by 9% the
emission of
NOx catalytic technologyʺlean
NOxʺwhichreducesby30%and50%NOx,etc.
Because of annual NOx pollution produced by
harbour tugs, it should investigate the possible use
and application of these technologies to reduce
pollutionandbemorerespectfuloftheenvironment
and environmental work. This practice should also
apply
to the large number of merchant ships made
inputs, outputs and also remain moored in harbour
with auxiliary motors are running, uninterrupted
emittingnitrogenoxidesandothergreenhousegases
into the atmosphere, to the great amount of traffic
present in the port (trucks, cars, motorcycles, etc.)
freighttrainscirculatingin
theinnerharbourandport
machinery countless running internal combustion
engines.
Itcanalsoreducepollutioncausedbytheemission
ofnitrogenoxidesbyharbourtugsintheportareas,
by:
Optimizinganytowing:
During the time the tug is low (55% of the total
timeofoperations),thetug
isonstand‐bywithout
doinganywork waitingto be required.Withthe
statistics of annual labour of every tug, it is
considered that could reduce by more than two‐
thirdstheemissionsproducedinthispowerrange.
Therefore, it produces unnecessary pollution and
could be avoided if there’s
a reduction in the
operatingtimeharbourtug.Thisreductionis
possible with good logistics and planning
maneuversentry,exitandremoval.
The emission of these nitrogen oxides produced
minimalmachinecanalsobecutinhalf,ifwaiting
timesorstand‐byforamainengineofthetugand
it is only with a drive motor running. This does
notimplyareductioninthesecurityofthetug.
Reducingthespeedofthetug:
NOxemissionsisproportionaltothespeedofthe
shipresultingfrompropellercubic law, therefore
reducingthespeedofthetugreduce
theemission
ofNOx.Inadditiontoreduceapproximately10%
the speed of the tug, reduce by 25% the fuel
consumptionofthis.
Reductionofmaximumpropulsionpowertug:
Itshouldalsobereconsideredinviewoftheshort
timeofuseofthemaximumpowerofthetug(only
3% of the total time at maximum power
maneuversand1%ofthetimeofmaneuveringto
3/4 power), reducing the propulsion power of
harbourtugs. Withthe experienceisverified and
confirmed that it is not needed as much power
propulsioninharbourtugs,andyoucanperform
the
same maneuvers of docking, undocking and
removing smaller tug propulsion power and
thereforelesspolluting.
We have to finally say that with the
implementation of these measures would avoid or
significantly reduce the harmful effects posed by
nitrogenoxidesemittedfrommarine engines,onthe
healthofthepopulation.Thisrisk
isfurtherincreased
intheʺport‐cityʺthatco‐inhabitacitywherenitrogen
oxidesareemittedinsidetheport,duetowindsand
other weather factors and the particular terrain of
each territory, take these oxides of nitrogen to the
town, causing major environmental problems
(changes in red tide
phytoplankton, acid rain, etc.)
and health services to the resident population
(reducedlevelsoflungfunction,impairedthegenetic
materialofcells,prematuredeath, etc.).
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