International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 5
Number 2
June 2011
141
1 INTRODUCTION
One substantial contribution to safety of the mari-
time transportation system is safe ship handling. It
has to be realised in every situation and under all po-
tential prevailing circumstances of the ship status
(i.a. characterised by ship type and shape, draught
etc.) and the environment (as, e.g., water depth,
wind, current etc.). In the case of certain dangers or
concrete emergencies there is an urgent need for
quick and reliable information in order to safely ma-
noeuvre a ship e.g. to quickly return to the position
of a Person-overboard (PoB) accident. Especially in
such situations, manoeuvring information provided
by standard wheelhouse posters or the required
standard manoeuvring booklet are inconvenient and
insufficient.
According to the definitions given by
IMO/IALA, e-Navigation is the harmonised collec-
tion, integration, exchange, presentation and analysis
of maritime information onboard and ashore by elec-
tronic means to enhance berth-to-berth navigation
and related services, for safety and security at sea
and protection of the marine environment. Within
this concept new approaches to provide advanced
manoeuvring support in case of emergencies can al-
so be developed.
There are ongoing investigations into potential
enhancements for onboard manoeuvring support and
assistance for the specific case of Person-overboard
accidents. Among others motivated by the introduc-
tion of new information and communication tech-
nologies and their potentials for more sophisticated
solutions, research and development activities taking
also into account the latest e-Navigation initiative of
IMO and IALA have been started. Based on analysis
of selected accident case studies and existing solu-
tions, representing the technical state-of-the-art,
lacks and shortcomings will be identified and dis-
cussed in the next chapter followed by development
of a concept for advanced situation-dependent
manoeuvring support. Relations to and requirement
derived from IMO's and IALA's e-Navigation initia-
tive will be introduced and discussed.
Advanced Maritime Technologies to Support
Manoeuvring in Case of Emergencies - a
Contribution to E-navigation Development
M. Baldauf, S. Klaes & J.-U. Schröder-Hinrichs
World Maritime University, Maritime Risk and System Safety (MaRiSa) Research Group,
Malmoe, Sweden
K. Benedict & S. Fischer
Hochschule Wismar, Dept. of Maritime Studies, ISSIMS, Rostock-Warnemuende, Germany
E. Wilske
SSPA Sweden AB, Gothenburg
ABSTRACT: Safe ship handling in every situation and under all prevailing circumstances of ship status and
the environment is a core element contributing to the safety of the maritime transportation system. Especially
in case of emergencies, there is a need for quick and reliable information to safely manoeuvre a ship e.g. to
quickly return to the position of a Person-overboard (PoB) accident. Within this paper investigations into
onboard manoeuvring support for Person-overboard accidents will be presented. Based on the analysis of se-
lected accident case studies and existing solutions representing the technical state-of-the-art, shortcomings
will be identified and discussed and a potential approach for advanced manoeuvring support in the context of
e-Navigation based requirements will be introduced and discussed.
142
2 PERSON OVERBOARD CASE STUDIES
2.1 Container ship in heavy seas
A fully laden containership was on a voyage from
port of Rotterdam sailing to a port in the Baltic Sea.
The actual speed was reduced due to deteriorating
weather conditions with strong winds and increasing
wave heights.
Some bunker room alarms occurred during night
time and the ship command decided to send a team
to investigate the situation and the source of alarms.
A team of two engineers went to the bunker room
between cargo holds but one of them was hit by a
wave and washed overboard. Although his immer-
sion suit was without a floating device, it kept him
warm and a fender which had been torn loose kept
him afloat.
The ship's command immediately informed
shore-based traffic centre and requested assistance
but decided not to conduct a return manoeuvre such
as a SCHARNOW- or WILLIAMSON-Turn and, as
documented in the official accident investigation re-
port, continued her voyage without changing course
or speed at all.
Figure 1. Snapshot from ECDIS record – continuation of the
voyage without conduction any manoeuvre (taken from acci-
dent investigation report)
The person overboard was several hours later res-
cued by a SAR vessel and brought to a hospital,
where he was recovered and was able to resume his
work a few days later.
2.2 Person-overboard in open sea area
A container ship was en route from Mexico to Japan
in winter. The ship's route had to lead through a sea
area behind a hurricane. However, the average wind
condition during the time of the accident was Bft 5
with corresponding sea state and with significant
wave heights of approximately 5m. In the sea area
300 nm off the Japanese coast a team of four crew
members performed various tasks on the bow. In the
course of their work several strong waves washed
over the deck, hitting three seamen and sweeping
overboard one of the mariners.
Figure 2. Manoeuvre track during person overboard accident
(taken from official accident investigation report)
According to the official accident investigation
report, which also includes an analysis of the ma-
noeuvre log and ECDIS records, there were no ma-
noeuvres in compliance with or at least similar to
one of the known return manoeuvres to bring the
ship back to the accident's position, or on a opposite
course along the original track.
While some crew members attempted resuscita-
tion, others were involved in search measures initi-
ated by the ship command. The resuscitation efforts
in connection with the seriously injured mariner
were unsuccessful. Darkness started to fall as early
as 1700 hours. Although there were supporting
search efforts by Japanese Coast Guard (JCG) air-
craft, the seaman who had been gone overboard
could not be found. In addition at around 2100 hours
rain began to fall. The search was ultimately sus-
pended six hours after the accident due to continu-
ously deteriorating weather, and resumed the next
day by the JCG.
The vessel finally continued its journey to Japan,
where two injured mariners recovered in hospital.
The mariner who had been swept overboard was
never found.
3 INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE PRESENT
SITUATION AND STATE OF THE ART
As demonstrated in the cases studies above, even to-
day a person overboard accident in most cases un-
fortunately ends with the death of the concerned per-
son. Available statistics from national Marine
Accident Investigation branches all over the world
show that in up to 75% (see e.g. Annual Marine In-
cident Report 2003, Queensland) of such cases a
mariner or passenger overboard finally died. Several
143
publications refer to an average number of 1,000
dead worldwide per year due to person overboard
accidents. According to the latest information about
cruise and ferry passengers and crew overboard ac-
cidents only of North American passenger shipping
companies, compiled by KLEIN for the period from
2000 to 2010, there were over 150 PoB accidents.
Compared to groundings and collisions, person
overboard accidents are rarer events but in terms of
risk assessment have much greater consequences. A
person overboard accident requires immediate deci-
sion making and prompt action. Every second is im-
portant and influences the success of the actions to
rescue the person overboard.
There are standard plans available which can be
visualised, e.g., as flow chart diagram as exemplarily
shown in the figure below.
But the poor success rate of rescue actions begins
already with the difficulties of recognising the event
immediately. The first task of the bridge team is to
mark the position, release a life ring with safety
buoy (smoke and light signal), keep sharp look out
and turn the ship back to the position of the accident
to pick up the person overboard.
Figure 3. Sample of a Person-overboard action plan addressing
actions of witness, captain and members of the bridge team
(according to HAHNE)
The crucial action is to bring the ship back to the
position of the accident. In literature, several ma-
noeuvres for person-overboard accidents are de-
scribed. However, there is no single standard proce-
dure recommended, as the effectiveness of a
manoeuvre depends on the type of the ship and the
prevailing circumstances of the particular situation.
The guidance given therefore basically takes into ac-
count only the amount of time passed after the acci-
dent. According to the IAMSAR (International Aer-
onautical and Maritime Search and Rescue) /
MERSAR (Merchant Ship Search and Rescue)
Manual, firstly published by IMO in 1970, threefold
action cases for manoeuvring are described:
− "Immediate action" situation,
− "Delayed action" situation and
− "Person missing" situation.
Referring to the experiences and proven effec-
tiveness in many person-overboard casualties the
SINGLE-TURN, the WILLIAMSON-Turn as well
as the so called SCHARNOW-Turn are mentioned
in the MERSAR manual. However, there are further
turns which are rarely used in commercial shipping
as knowledge and/or experience is limited. In case of
real accidents, almost no experience is available for
most of the ship officers; they never or seldom have
experienced such an accident personally.
The mandatory training procedures, including the
conduct of return manoeuvres, are normally execut-
ed under good conditions in order to keep a safe en-
vironment for persons involved in the training rou-
tine. Contrary to this, in accidents the conditions,
especially the wind and waves, are worse. Action
plans according to the International Safety Manage-
ment (ISM) Code are available, but in the case of re-
al situations the use of these plans is often limited
because plans are made to give more general guid-
ance. No technical means, or only unsuitable ones,
are available e.g. for the immediate selection and
planning of the manoeuvre in the respective situa-
tion.
Today ECDIS and GPS or other systems are
available to allow for marking the position of an ac-
cident electronically. However, it has to be done
manually. As accident investigations have shown in
such stressful situation the crew member may fail to
do so.
Most Radar/ECDIS equipment available on the
market (i.a. Transas NaviSailor or Furuno ECDIS
EC 1000) allows the display of a marked position
and may provide information about distance and
Time To Go (TTG) to the marked position on basis
of calculation using actual course/speed information.
Some more enhanced systems (e.g. latest Vi-
sionmaster FT systems of Sperry Marine) even allow
for the display of search patterns – but this is needed
144
later, if the immediate measures for finding the per-
son right after the accident have failed.
The consideration of external factors, such as
wind influence on the ship's track, is possible only
on the basis of the mental model of the ship officer
on watch; no computer-based support is available
when it is most urgently needed.
Like all other maritime accidents, person-
overboard and search and rescue cases are rare
events. Immediate actions are necessary and have to
take into account the prevailing circumstances of the
environment and the manoeuvring characteristics of
the ship. The general guidelines and information for
manoeuvring have to be adapted to the actual situa-
tion. However, the manoeuvring data displayed on
paper on the bridge to assist the captain and navi-
gating officers are of a general character only and of
limited use in the case of real accidents. Manoeu-
vring assistance regarding optimised conduction
adapted to the specific hydrodynamic and the actual
environmental conditions are urgently needed.
Although new and highly sophisticated equip-
ment and integrated navigation and bridge systems
(INS / IBS) have great potential to provide enhanced
assistance, situation-dependent manoeuvring infor-
mation and recommendation are not available yet.
The same is true for SAR actions. Optimisation and
coordination of all involved parties is needed, taking
into account e-Navigation related concepts.
Finally, the related training courses need to be
enhanced, especially by means of the use of full-
mission ship-handling simulation facilities.
4 INTEGRATED MARITIME TECHNOLOGIES
FOR ADVANCED MANOEUVRING
ASSISTANCE
4.1 Selected Aspects of Manoeuvring
Ship manoeuvres can be divided into routine
manoeuvring and manoeuvring in safety-critical and
emergency situations. This division can be devel-
oped further by considering different sea areas
where manoeuvres have to be performed: e.g. in
open seas, in coastal waters and fairways as well as
in harbour approaches and basins. Routine manoeu-
vring in open seas covers ship-handling under nor-
mal conditions, e.g. in order to follow a planned
route from the port of departure to the port of desti-
nation, and include simple course change manoeu-
vres, speed adaptations according to the voyage plan
etc.
Manoeuvring in coastal areas, at entrances to
ports and in harbour basins include manoeuvres, e.g.
to embark and disembark a pilot, to pass fairways
and channels and even berthing manoeuvres with or
without tug assistance.
Manoeuvring in safety-critical and emergency
situations deals with operational risk management
and includes manoeuvres to avoid a collision or a
grounding, to avoid dangerous rolling in heavy seas,
or to manoeuvre in the case of an real accident e.g.
return manoeuvres in case of a person overboard ac-
cident or when involved in Search-and-Rescue oper-
ations.
Taking the case studies described in the second
section it can be concluded that there is a strong
need to improve and support the ship command with
more sophisticated situation-dependent manoeuvring
information, especially in an emergency. It is
worthwhile to use the potential of e-Navigation and
the related new technology in order to generate such
assistance to the human operator when a person has
fallen overboard.
4.2 Situation dependent manoeuvring assistance by
dynamic wheelhouse poster and electronic
manoeuvring booklet
As earlier investigations (Baldauf & Motz, 2006) in-
to the field of collision and grounding avoidance
have shown, there is an unsatisfactory exchange of
information which is already available on a ship's
navigational bridge from different sensors and
sources.
Until today the change of manoeuvring character-
istics, e.g. with respect to their dependencies on
speed and loading conditions, as well as on envi-
ronmental conditions (e.g. water depth, wind and
current) has not yet been sufficiently considered.
High sophisticated Integrated navigation systems
(INS – see also IMO, 2009) are installed on board
but do not provide the bridge team with situation-
dependent manoeuvring data e.g. turning circle di-
ameter, stopping distances etc. for the actual situa-
tion. However, the ongoing developments under the
IMO's and IALA's e-Navigation initiative with the
application of new technologies and data might al-
low exactly this in the future. In the context of the e-
Navigation concept and its definition, the introduc-
tion of a dynamic wheelhouse poster and an elec-
tronic manoeuvring booklet are suggested. Up-to-
date manoeuvring information adapted to specific
purposes and situations can be provided by using
enhanced integrated simulation technologies.
For that purpose a first generic concept has been
drafted to combine own ship status and environmen-
tal information from different sensors and manoeu-
vring information that, e.g., could be gained via a
mandatory Voyage Data Recorder or from ECDIS
recordings.
145
Figure 4. Principal structure and data-flow for generating a dy-
namic wheelhouse poster and manoeuvring booklet to provide
situation dependent manoeuvring support for return manoeuvre
For a person overboard accident the mandatory
wheelhouse poster should contain information about
return manoeuvres. Spotlight analyses have shown
that in most cases this information is incomplete and
only partly or not available in the documents, even
for the basic cases of deep and shallow waters as
well as for loaded and ballast conditions.
4.3 Application of fast-time simulation techniques
for Manoeuvring Assistance
The following equation of motion is used as the
model for the ships dynamic and implemented in
software modules for fast time simulation:
(1)
On the right side are the effects of inertia where u
and v represent the speed components in longitudi-
nal and transverse direction x and y, and r is the rate
of turn of the ship. The ship's mass is m, and x
G
is
the distance of the centre of gravity from the origin
of the coordinate system, I
z
is the moment of inertia
around the z-axis. The ship's hull forces X and Y as
well as the yawing moment N around the z-axis are
on the left side. Their dimensionless coefficients are
normally represented by polynomials based on di-
mensionless parameters, for instance in the equation
for transverse force Y and yaw moment N given as
the sum of terms with linear components N
r
, N
v
, Y
r
and Y
v
and additional non-linear terms. Other forces,
such as rudder forces and wind forces are expressed
as look-up tables. There are additional equations for
the engine model, and also look-up tables to repre-
sent automation systems characteristics. The solu-
tion of this set of differential equations is calculated
every second; some internal calculations are even
done at a higher frequency. Further detailed descrip-
tions can be found in Benedict (2010).
The inputs for the simulation module consist of
controls, the states and the data for the environmen-
tal conditions. Additionally, there is an input of the
ship's condition parameters. They are normally fixed
but in case of malfunctions they might change, e.g.
reducing the rudder turning rate or maximum angle.
The results from the simulation module are trans-
ferred to be stored or directly displayed on demand
in the dynamic wheelhouse poster or the electronic
booklet.
The module is used to perform calculations to
predict the path for specific actual or planned com-
mands. In this way the module can be applied to
plan and optimise the return manoeuvre and auto-
matically produce the complete situation-dependent
manoeuvring plan for a return manoeuvre.
5 SITUATION-DEPENDENT MANOEUVRING
PLAN FOR RETURN MANOEUVRE
5.1 Aim and Objective of the Planning Process
The objective of the simulation-based manoeuvre
planning and optimisation process is to find a suita-
ble procedure which can be used in a particular situ-
ation for the actual status of a real ship.
There are standard files for manoeuvre control
settings for simulating specific manoeuvres. By
means of the fast time simulations, various results of
manoeuvres will be generated. The final goal is to
achieve the sequence for an optimised manoeuvre
control setting adapted to the actual situation param-
eter. Presently, the biggest problem is that there are
many options possible and the effect of the changes
of the parameters used in the models is not very
clear; some changes may even have effects which
counteract the results of the others. Therefore it is
very important to know which parameters which
have a clear impact on the manoeuvring characteris-
tic.
An example is given below to indicate the need
and the effect of manoeuvring optimisation by
means of an Emergency Return Manoeuvre.
5.2 Planning of an Emergency Return Manoeuvre
The example discussed in the following extract is
the emergency return manoeuvre using the well
known “Scharnow-Turn”.
Steering Parameter
• Rudder angle,
• Engine revoluti on / p ow er
• Bow-/Af t-thrusters
• …
Status Parameter
• max available rudder angle,
• Time for rudder command
• max engine revo lut io n /
power
• Time for reverse engine
manoeuvre
• …
Actual moving
parameter
• course, speed (x, y)
• ROT, heading, draft,
• Lateral wind area
• …
Actual
environmental
condition
• Wind (force, direction),
• Depth of water
• Course of fairway
• Aids to Navigation
• targets
VDR based
manoeuvring
Data base
• Manoeuvring data
depending on
• Loadi n g
conditions
• Environmental
conditions
• Steering and
Control
paramet ers
• Steering and
control
conditions
• …
Fast-tim e
Simulation
Calculation of:
• R ud de r
commands
according to
standard
procedure
• D et ermi nati o n of
time/heading for
counter rudder
and wheel over
point
Application and
Display of
adapted
manoeuvring
characteristics
and generation
of the complete
situation-
dependent
manoeuvring
plan
Dynamic Wheelhouse Poster and
Electronic Manoeuvring Booklet
for advanced manoeuvring support
automatic plan for return manoeuvre in PoB
146
Figure 5. Reference outline for the Scharnow–Turn
As with all other emergency return manoeuvres,
the fundamental aim is to return the vessel to the
original track by the shortest route and with mini-
mum loss of time. In practice the vessel initially fol-
lows the turning circle, and after shifting the rudder
by a course change of about 240°, finally turns to
counter rudder and amidships. The vessel then
swings back to the opposite course at a certain
measurable distance from the original track, at a cer-
tain distance from the reference manoeuvre.
The first problem is how to get the “Optimal ref-
erence manoeuvre” because the heading change of
240° is an average only and can differ among ships
from 225° up to 260° or even more, as can the Wil-
liamson Turn which can vary from 25° to 80° in-
stead of the standard average value of 60°.
The following figure demonstrates the wide va-
riety of the outcome of the standard course of rudder
commands compared for a container vessel, a cruise
ship (blue), roro-passenger ferry (brown) and two
container feeder vessels (green and red).
Figure 6. Comparison of the outline of standardised Scharnow–
Turn for four different types of ships
Beside this basic variance according to the ship
type, there are other more important dependencies
that have a substantial impact on the outlined path of
a return manoeuvre.
Figure 7. Comparison of the outline of standardised Scharnow–
Turn for a 7.500 TEU container ship in ballast condition for
three different wind conditions (no wind- blue and wind Bft 6
from north (red) and north-west (green) respectively)
Further samples are given in Fig. 7, which
demonstrates the dependency of the final outcome of
the return manoeuvre on the loading condition as
well as on wind force and wind direction. Of course,
the outline would change again if the ship is fully
laden or if shallow water effects occur.
147
Finally, for reasons of completeness, it should be
mentioned that there are dependencies on the initial
ship speed and on the available water depth. It is
clearly to be seen that adaptation of the manoeuvre
plan has to be performed for each single varied sit-
uation parameter. On the other hand, the simulation
software module is able to provide the correspond-
ing data accordingly.
The next step after having simulated the standard
manoeuvre procedure for the prevailing environmen-
tal circumstances is then to determine the best ma-
noeuvre sequence.
Using the simulation software module there are
two principal ways available in order to determine
the optimal sequence for the situation dependent
manoeuvre plan:
− The first option is to simulate series of manoeu-
vres using standard „SCHARNOW-Turn“ (or
WILLIAMSON-Turn) manoeuvring commands
in automated simulation series. This method can
be seen in Fig. 8 below, where several heading
changes were used as parameters to vary the final
result of the distance between the initial track and
return track.
Figure 8. Optimisation of a emergency return manoeuvre by se-
ries with different heading changes from 240° up to 300° (with
increasing steps of 10°) for counter rudder
The results presented in Figure 8 are for the 7.500
TEU container ship in ballast conditions and taking
into account northerly winds of Bft 6.
− The second option is to start with a standard
„SCHARNOW-Turn“ manoeuvring command se-
ries for automated simulation, combined with an
optimisation procedure.
An optimising algorithm is applied to find a suit-
able heading change for counter rudder as parameter
to achieve smallest distance (limit=10m) between in-
itial track and return track on opposite heading (lim-
it=2°). The Optimal track is indicated by yellow col-
our in Fig. 9. The main parameters of the optimised
manoeuvre procedure are given in the table format.
Figure 9. Emergency return manoeuvre optimisation procedure
(left) and display of manoeuvring details for optimised ma-
noeuvre (right)
An optimising algorithm is used to find the suita-
ble heading change for counter rudder as parameter
to achieve smallest distance (limit=10m) between in-
itial track and return track on opposite heading (lim-
it=2°). The optimal track is indicated by yellow col-
our in Fig. 9. The main parameters of the optimised
manoeuvre procedure are given in the table format.
6 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
OUTLOOK
Investigations into the overall situation regarding
onboard manoeuvring assistance and into the inte-
gration of new maritime technologies onboard ships
are performed. The ongoing investigations have
shown that there is potential to increase operational
safety in shipping.
Taking into account the availability of new tech-
nologies and new equipment, situation dependent
manoeuvring information should be provided to the
navigators on the bridge rather than continuing to
provide them with static manoeuvring data which of-
ten are incomplete and inconvenient in use.
For these purposes, the introduction of a dynamic
wheelhouse poster and an electronic manoeuvring
booklet is suggested, to provide ship's command
with up-to-date information about the manoeuvring
*********** Manoeuvre information***********************
main parameter for emergency return manoeuvre
with starting speed of 25.5 kn
***************************************************
TYPE: port Scharnow turn
initial approaching heading : -0.0 °
initial approaching course/track : 0.0 °
time of hard rudder port : 0 min 1 sec
hard counter rudder to starboard after : 233.1 °
time of hard rudder starboard : 5 min 20 sec
overshoot angle : 24.7 °
opposite course/track (+180°) : 180.0 °
hard counter rudder to port after : 204.5° at 155.5°
time of hard rudder port : 8 min 3 sec
time of rudder a midships : 8 min 40 sec
cross distance to original track : 3.9 m
final heading : 179.4 °
final course/track : 179.0 °
148
characteristics of their ship, adapted to the prevailing
environmental conditions.
A concept is developed and exemplarily applied
in order to support the accomplishment of manoeu-
vring tasks in case of a person overboard accident.
The fundamental element of this concept is based on
innovative fast-time simulation technologies. It is
applied for the purpose of providing situation-
dependent manoeuvring data by taking into account
actual environmental conditions and actual ship sta-
tus information. The use is also demonstrated exem-
plarily for the generation of optimised situation de-
pendent manoeuvring plan for an emergency return
manoeuvre.
Future investigations, i.a., will deal with en-
hancement and validation of suitable visualization of
the fast-time simulation results to support decision-
making in an ECDIS environment. Therefore, hu-
man factor related investigations dealing with a user-
centered design of the human-machine interface
have to be performed.
Additionally, investigations into the application
of the concept on other situations will be carried out.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The investigations and the preliminary results pre-
sented in this paper were partly carried out and
achieved within Swedish-German RTD project
ADOPTMAN. They belong to the MARTEC pro-
gram supported by the European Commission. The
project is funded and supervised by the Swedish
Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems
(VINNOVA) and the German Research Centre
Jülich (PTJ). Some parts of the work were carried
out in the research project "Identification of multi-
variable parameter models for ship motion and con-
trol" (MULTIMAR) funded by the German Federal
Ministry of Economics and Technology and the
Ministry of Education and Research of Mecklen-
burg-Pomerania.
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DISCLAIMER
The views expressed in this paper are the views of
the authors and do not necessarily represent the
views of IMO, WMU, or the national Authorities.