International Journal

on Marine Navigation

and Safety of Sea Transportation

Volume 4

Number 1

March 2010

1 INTRODUCTION

This paper is primarily based on research recently

conducted in partnership with the Nautical Institute

and Middlesex University in London. The purpose

of my research is to show that a contributory factor

to the occurrence of marine accidents, is experiential

knowledge (knowledge gained from professional ‘on

the job’ experiences and reflected upon) not being

transferred from senior to junior officers onboard

modern merchant navy vessels by mentoring; to

identify the barriers that are preventing this transfer

of knowledge, and then to provide practical sugges-

tions that will help re-establish the flow of

knowledge.

In addition, it is my aim to engage the maritime

community in a conversation about mentoring and

the transfer of experiential knowledge, for although

one may not agree with what I am saying, the very

act of disagreeing is engaging and is raising the con-

ceptual profile.

During this paper I will briefly discuss:

− What is considered the most significant lack of

knowledge at sea today

− The causation of this lack of knowledge, and

− What can be done to re-establish the flow of

knowledge.

Throughout this paper you will note un-cited quo-

tations. These are taken directly from my research

questionnaires and, whilst due to agreed confidenti-

ality I can’t name the responder, I gratefully

acknowledge their contribution by engaging in this

conversation.

2 DEFINITIONS

In this paper I have used the following definitions:

1 Candidate–Anyone receiving experiential

knowledge by mentoring.

2 Experiential Knowledge–I have defined this as

knowledge gained from professional ‘on the job’

experiences and reflected upon. This knowledge

can come from a wide variety of sources or expe-

riences but, in my opinion, it often has the most

impact when it comes from an accident, incident

or near miss; however it does need to be reflected

upon before it can become experiential learning. I

will say more on this further into my presentation.

3 Mentor-The Oxford English Dictionary describes

a Mentor as ‘an experienced and trusted adviser’

and sources the origin of the word as ‘from the

name of Mentor, the adviser of the young Telem-

achus in Homer’s Odyssey’. In the context of my

research I simply define it as the possessor and

distributor of experiential knowledge.

4 Mentoring–‘Mentoring is a form of knowledge

transfer based in part on altruism’ Davenport T.

& Prusak L. (1998). I like this definition as, for

me, it sums up the unselfish act of knowledge

transfer that I myself benefited from in my early

Mentoring and the Transfer of Experiential

Knowledge in Today’s Merchant Fleet

A.L. Le Goubin MNI

London Offshore Consultants, Houston, Texas, USA;

The Nautical Institute, London, UK

ABSTRACT: According to various statistics, the number of marine accidents is rising, and recent increases in

the cost of P & I insurance cover provides further evidence that the cost of these accidents is also soaring.

This paper establishes that a contributory factor to the increase in accidents is that experiential knowledge

(knowledge gained from professional, ‘on the job’ experiences and reflected upon) is not being passed from

senior to junior officers onboard many merchant vessels, in the traditional way that it used to be, by mentor-

ing. Following worldwide research throughout the maritime community by questionnaire, and ethnographic

research by the author, the paper will show what is considered to be the most significant lack of knowledge

and causation of this lack of knowledge. It will offer some practical suggestions that may break down these

barriers and re-establish the flow of experiential knowledge in the multi-national, multi-cultural merchant

fleet of today.

days at sea. For the purpose of my research, I

have followed this theme and defined mentoring

as ‘the act of sharing knowledge without a desig-

nated reward’, which definition in itself has

caused a certain amount of debate, but I believe it

suffices.

5 Reflection – ‘A thoughtful (in the sense of delib-

erative) consideration of your experiences, which

leads you to decide what the experience means to

you.’ Institute of Work Based Learning. (2008).

3 STATISTICS & SUPPORTING EVIDENCE

According to DNV ‘updated figures for 2007 show

that losses from navigational accidents within the

shipping industry are continuing to increase.’ Soma

T. (2007). In this paper I have not incorporated sta-

tistical data to support my findings as, lack of expe-

riential knowledge is not generally cited as a con-

tributory root cause of accidents, and therefore its

use requires interpretation of accident reports. In-

stead, I have concentrated on the supporting evi-

dence gained from my research.

4 MOST SIGNIFICANT LACK OF

KNOWLEDGE

‘Up to 70% of skill is learnt from experience’ Tra-

utman S. (2007). It is this maritime skill pool that I

believe is not being passed on in the way it used to,

by mentoring. With this in mind, and having deter-

mined, by questionnaire that insufficient experiential

knowledge transfer is considered to be contributing

to accidents and incidents, I went on to find what is

considered to be the most significant elements con-

tributing to this lack of professional knowledge in

today’s Merchant Navy.

I must be honest; when I began this research I ex-

pected to see the now common themes of, applica-

tion of collision regulations, standard of certification

training and reliance on electronics, to name a few,

to be the most prominent response to the question I

posed; ‘what, in your experience, is the most signifi-

cant lack of knowledge, that leads to accidents and

incidents?’ These expected responses did occur, but

not as a significant number, approximately 53% of

my responders cited elements that I have collectively

grouped as, lack of ‘feel’, seamanship, intuition,

practical knowledge and experience.

But what are these responses actually referring

to? ‘Whilst much can be taught at college about

‘seafaring’ it has to be complemented by practical

advice from senior personnel, however for the ad-

vice to be understood the recipient needs to have

(for want of a better word) a ‘feel’ for seafaring.’

In the sense the verb ‘to feel’ is synonymous with

‘to experience,’ I believe that these responders are

articulating the same lack of experiential knowledge

that I am referring to in this paper. Let me give you

a few more examples:

− ‘Ship’s officers have ceased to be trained to

think and act independently, make decisions

based on their own judgments and be account-

able for them

− Modern seafarers lack a ‘feel’ for the sea

− Inability to act intuitively, and

− The inability of modern officers to use their

own senses, such as sight and sound and their

brains to make decisions.’

It is not something tangible, nor is it a subject that

can be taught in college, although the concept should

be addressed and the candidates encouraged to par-

ticipate in experiential knowledge transfer. It is, as

one of my consultant colleagues so sagely puts it

‘those gems of wisdom that are passed on during an

operation, and that consolidate theoretical

knowledge.’

5 CAUSATION OF THE LACK OF

KNOWLEDGE

My next question then is ‘what is the causation of

this lack of knowledge’? This question provided

much more balanced results and I list the eight top

answers:

1 Demands on Masters/Senior Officers time

2 Rapid promotion

3 Multi national / cultural crews

4 Poor training / lack of basic knowledge

5 Attitude / lack of interest

6 Employing anyone who has a ticket

7 Inexperience, and

8 No formal system of training for Senior Officers.

It is the first four responses I want to concentrate

on, as they represent approximately 54% of the re-

sponses to this question and again, I believe they in-

dicate inadequate experiential knowledge transfer.

Taking each in turn, I will discuss how I believe

each causation is affecting the transfer of experien-

tial knowledge:

5.1 Demands on Masters / Senior Officers time

‘Officers are struggling to keep their heads over the

growing responsibilities and additional paperwork

that has come about due to the additional require-

ments that have come about in the last decade.’

‘Machines have many qualities but common sense

isn’t one of them. And common sense is lacking in

too many seafarers today. The Master has a vital

supervisory role of support of the OOW and this role

is being neglected by the demands of the “office” on

the Master’s time.’

I think we can all agree that the Senior Officers

onboard today’s ships are far busier than they were

in say the ‘80’s when I was deep sea. I am at times

both shocked and dejected to see the changes that

have occurred to the merchant fleet, or more specifi-

cally to the mariners onboard today’s ships, as they

struggle to comply with the everyday requirements

of running a modern merchant vessel.

‘Lack of time onboard due to fatigue of Officers.’

Much has been written about the effects of fatigue

including some very good papers - ‘Seafarer Fatigue

– The Cardiff Research Programme.’ Smith A. et al

(2006). There is little doubt that fatigue is a primary

cause of accidents but consider for a moment the ef-

fect it is having on mentoring; how many of us due

to work commitments have time as fathers for our

own children? At times during a voyage we are often

so tired that we can barely stand up, let alone take

time out to show the third mate again how to do a

relatively simple operation. Do it yourself, do it

properly, there is always tomorrow to show her

again. But that opportunity for knowledge transfer

has passed and may not be re-created prior to the in-

cident!

‘Masters, Officers are so busy with paperwork

that they have no time to observe the crew during

their work. If I spend the day on deck when am I go-

ing to complete my other jobs, when am I going to

sleep and what about STCW?’

This is an interesting comment, although I know

that this responder was referring more to hours of

rest than when was he going to find the time to be a

mentor. So what about STCW and the transfer of

experiential knowledge - are there any provisions for

the inclusion of this concept? I cannot find any ref-

erence that specifically looks at the knowledge shar-

ing that I am referring to - but that does not come as

a surprise - however, much is said about training and

the minimum standards required for certification.

Keep this in mind, as I will mention more about a

structured training scheme further into this paper.

5.2 Rapid promotion:

I have looked at the new foundation degree offered

by the UK for training of candidates for their first

OOW Certificate and it looks very familiar. It is a

three year, five phase course, very similar to the one

I embarked on in 1980 although I achieved an HND

and now the new officer will achieve an honors de-

gree, in keeping with many of the other maritime

training establishments around the world. Further,

the UK Maritime Coastguard Agency (MCA) re-

minds us; ‘Master and Officers need to know that

the standards expected of the candidate (when com-

petence is reached) is that of a person about to take

up the job for which the award is made. Cadets are

expected at the end of their training to be competent

to start to undertake the job of watchkeeping officer,

but they will clearly be lacking in experience.’ MCA

(2008). Nothing has changed there! So what is the

problem that so many at sea today are referring to?

Let us look at a few of the comments I received:

‘The manning agents get one or two good reports

about someone’s performance, and they are fast

tracked for promotion – often beyond their capabili-

ties. On the reverse side, I have seen some junior of-

ficers demanding promotion after one or two con-

tracts in a particular rank – or threatening to leave

– regardless of whether the senior officers believe

they are suitable.’

‘Lack of time in the long term meaning of the

word. Promotions are happening very quickly, peo-

ple do not have time to experience their knowledge

and are being moved one rung up the career lad-

der.’ This is an interesting conceptualization of the

learning process where people are not in a rank long

enough to ‘experience their knowledge’ or perhaps

to expand their knowledge base sufficiently with ex-

periential learning to move on to the next rank.

‘Many officers today are promoted quickly and as

a consequence, lack the foundation of a proper

knowledge base’.

‘The lack of skilled seafarers has also resulted in

a need to employ people who would previously have

not been considered as being suitably experienced

for a particular rank.’

In answer to this question the respondents who

referred to rapid promotion spoke of promotion be-

tween ranks and not the length of time that it takes a

seafarer to achieve his/her first watchkeeping quali-

fication. Therefore I believe we can assume that ini-

tial training is still adequate and that there is further

evidence that it is the experiential knowledge tradi-

tionally gained between ranks that is missing.

5.3 Multi national / cultural crews

This is always a difficult subject to approach and ar-

ticulate but I believe that it does affect the transfer of

experiential knowledge and therefore must be ad-

dressed in an ethical manner, supportive of the cur-

rent regime.

‘Much can be traced back to the huge changes

that took place in the industry in the early 1980’s.

Initially the ship owners continued to employ senior

officers from traditional maritime nations but em-

ployed cheaper junior officers and crew. This result-

ed in an almost complete break in the flow of

knowledge to seafarers who they believed would

take their jobs’. This responder goes on to comment

‘as things have progressed and the number of expe-

rienced officers and crew has diminished, there has

been a tendency for crewing agencies to hire a crew

of many different nationalities. On individual ships

this has sometimes resulted in an almost complete

breakdown in the inter-personnel communication.’

In some ways I am glad to say that the 80’s are

now well behind us and, in most cases, we have

moved on from the attitude described above. I spend

a significant amount of my time onboard merchant

vessels crewed by a staff of mixed nationalities and,

with respect to the difficulties sometimes observed,

believe that the problems actually lie far more with a

language barrier than with a cultural barrier. As I

have undertaken this ethnographic style of research I

have also noted that the problems seem to be far

more prevalent on vessels with two nationalities ra-

ther than those with many. This is, in my opinion,

due to the necessity to communicate in a common

language on a multi-national crewed ship, whereas

with those of just two different nationalities, there is

a tendency for each nationality to communicate in

their mother tongue and to only converse between

the two in a common language when necessary, in

essence, de-voiding the vessel of any social commu-

nication between the nationalities.

Consider for a moment how much experiential

knowledge can be gained by just listening to people

talking about a problem, if they are talking in a lan-

guage you understand, and conversely, how much is

lost if they are not.

5.4 Poor training / lack of basic knowledge

‘Lack of time for informal training – Undermanned

ships and over worked staff prevents mentors to take

time off their busy schedule and take personal inter-

est in training of juniors.’

From the previous quotes discussed earlier it does

not appear to be the initial college training that re-

spondents are referring to, but the training that they

receive onboard ships. This, I believe, further evi-

dences the need for all of us to have this conversa-

tion and to determine how we are going to share ex-

periential knowledge again.

6 SHARING OF EXPERIENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

So what can we do? How can experiential

knowledge be shared in today’s merchant fleets?

The first thing is to acknowledge that there is a prob-

lem and then to ask who is affected? Amongst oth-

ers, I believe this list would include seafarers, ship

owners, managers and charterers, ports and coastal

states, flag administrations, underwriters and envi-

ronmentalists, although not necessarily in that order

of precedence. If we are all affected by the problem

we should all be involved in searching for a solution.

Time and brevity permit me to only give a few ex-

amples of the way we can re-start the flow of infor-

mation. I would caution that none of these sugges-

tions must be allowed to increase the seafarers’

workload. They must be incorporated within the cur-

rent daily operations as cultural and procedural

changes or developments, introduced ethically and

quietly at every organisational level.

6.1 The 10 minute challenge-

This is something I would like everyone to under-

take who believe they may be affected by the prob-

lem. Sit quietly for just 10 minutes and reflect on

what your greatest concerns are regarding lack of

knowledge. For myself as a shipmaster, it would

start with if any one is looking out of the bridge

window, or is there total reliance on technology to

keep a look out. Having determined your greatest

concern(s), do something about it. In my example, I

would talk to my OOW’s anecdotally, with exam-

ples of clear weather collisions that have happened

recently on modern ships and hence why it was im-

portant to keep a visual lookout.

I often wonder how many masters who have con-

cerns regarding compliance with their standing or-

ders have taken the time to actually explain to their

junior officers the relevance of these instructions and

the potential consequences of non-compliance, for

both parties. Or is a signature of understanding suf-

ficient because there is no time for more, or perhaps

a fear that it could invoke a response? 10 minutes is

all it would take.

6.2 On the job opportunity-

‘To gain the maximum amount of synergy from on-

the-job experience, cognitive apprenticeships or a

transformational learning event requires teach-

er/facilitator support. Mentoring, guiding, debrief-

ing or teaching is required to maximize the learning

opportunities’. Gray I.S. (2007). To achieve this

gain I believe we need an adaptive, structured ap-

proach to mentoring. Most established shipping

companies had a formal system in place ten or twen-

ty years ago and in my early career it was expected

that I would understudy the next rank above. This

structured system should permeate through all

onboard activities and should be utilized through all

stages including:

1 Preparation–This could be as large as a Job Safe-

ty Analysis (JSA), perhaps a ‘toolbox’ talk or

quite simply just the master, mate or chief engi-

neer taking a couple of minutes to explain what is

expected to happen.

2 Execution-While the job or task is underway the

mentor should try and point out important / inter-

esting moments and facts and explain them to

candidates or better still, let them undertake the

task under supervision.

3 De-briefing - After the job or task has been com-

pleted, time should be allowed for questions,

comments or opinion.

One can imagine the difference this might make

to a keen young officer on the bridge who is used to

staying in the chart room plotting positions by GPS,

when approaching a port or anchorage and is al-

lowed to con the vessel under supervision through

the above tasked stages. Even now, I still remember

the pride I felt when as third mate; I was allowed,

under the master’s supervision, to keep the con of a

large roro/container vessel as we transited a busy

Dover Strait.

I believe that everyone should be routinely train-

ing his or her successor. Even on small tasks not re-

quiring formal preparation, every opportunity should

be taken to pass on experiential knowledge. If this

ethos is followed it should soon become embedded

within the culture of the vessel with a resultant im-

provement in operational standards.

6.3 External learning facility-

With access to the internet now available to ships it

is possible for companies to build a website that

gives the mariner real time information on a variety

of subjects perhaps relating to vessels within the

company, ports visited, cargos carried etc. This is a

good way of sharing information within the compa-

ny and of transferring experiential knowledge re-

motely. Some companies have taken this further and

employ knowledge brokers to facilitate this, but it

does not need to be that elaborate. I know of one

company that used to have a radio conference call

with all their vessels each morning; what a great way

of transferring experiential knowledge informally.

This concept could also be developed at institution

level with access to online mentors. I know from my

research that there are many professional, experi-

enced people willing to share their knowledge if we

can just facilitate the transfer.

‘Onboard a more structured approach may be

necessary – juniors setting down their questions,

comments and areas of bewilderment at the actions

taken, in an electronic format which could then ei-

ther be passed on to the senior officers on board or

to specific mentors elsewhere. The second option

provides some anonymity for the questioner but the

first option could/should elicit a response from the

senior officer involved in the situation in question.’ I

have recently seen a similar concept in place for

safety issues. When a potentially unsafe act or oc-

currence takes place it is dealt with immediately and

then a card is filled in detailing the instance. This

card is reviewed at the next daily management meet-

ing and any required action taken. The card becomes

part of a closed loop system ensuring feedback. Per-

haps this style of approach could be used to gain ex-

periential knowledge from an action, when ‘the heat

of the moment’ has passed.

6.4 Distribution of accident investigations-

I think that it is safe to say that we all like to read a

good accident report. I know that when ‘Seaways’

arrives each month the MARS reports are usually

where I start reading and, as I said right at the be-

ginning of this paper (experiential) knowledge can

come from a wide variety of sources or experiences

but, in my opinion, it often has the most impact when

it comes from an accident, incident or near miss;

however it does need to be reflected upon before it

can become experiential learning.’ Many countries

produce excellent reports but how many of them ac-

tually get to ships where they can be read and re-

flected upon by the seafarers? One suggestion,

which came from one of my consultant colleagues,

is to include a newsletter with lessons learned from

incidents and accidents in the weekly Notice to Mar-

iners that is sent to every vessel. Not only would the

seafarers be able to read this but also it would pro-

vide an excellent source of discussion between men-

tors and candidates. Just recently, IMO has adopted

the code to make marine accident investigations by

Flag/Coastal States mandatory and these reports will

be made available to the industry, so this is an ideal

opportunity to ensure that they reach as wide a read-

ership as possible.

In this context, thought must also be given to

producing these reports in different languages as I

believe so much value is lost if they are only in Eng-

lish. What use is an accident report highlighting the

dangers of (say) operating a winch if the winch op-

erator only speaks Chinese? Here, I believe P & I

Clubs could play a significant role and mutually

benefit, by helping to ensure that the experiential

knowledge is transferred to their member’s staff in a

language they can understand.

6.5 Structured training scheme-

From my research to date I can find little indication

that officers gaining their first certificate of compe-

tency are any less trained or experienced than they

used to be, in fact in some fields such as the use of

electronics they are very often experts! It is the next

step that is causing concern as the officer progresses

through the ranks. For those seafarers aspiring to, or

recently having taken up command, The Nautical In-

stitute Command Diploma Scheme provides an open

100

learning scheme based on the publication ‘The Nau-

tical Institute on Command’ with the diploma

awarded to those who successfully complete inter

alia all the relevant tasks in a log book. But what

about those officers who are between their first and

last certificate, what is there for them to ensure they

are gaining sufficient knowledge?

There are schemes available for this and I am

aware of at least two companies that incorporate

them into their training and career development pro-

grammes but, in my experience, this is not common.

I recommend that we develop and adopt a universal,

formalized system of continuous professional devel-

opment through the ranks - possibly by extending

the “Cadet Record Book” system – this is a task

book system - all the way up to chief officer / 2

engineer where it should meet up with the NI

scheme. The successful completion of the training

programme would then become pre-requisite to the

promotion of the officer.

6.6 Increase in staff-

We have already determined that fatigue is a serious

issue onboard of merchant vessels and an undisputed

cause of accidents and incidents. I am also a realist

and realize that most ship owners will not increase

the staffing levels onboard ships unless forced to by

legislation. I would urge the responsible administra-

tions to re-visit the issue of safe manning certificates

in the context of not only operating the ship safely

but also ensuring that the operators’ workload is

manageable, leaving sufficient time for other activi-

ties such as mentoring. Consider for a moment the

number of ships in your region that have just two

watch keeping officers, what chance is there for one

to understudy the other when they are working 6 on

and (theoretically) 6 off?

In this context I am pleased to report that some

ship owners have considered this and provided an

extra officer onboard their vessels to assist with the

workload. On one tanker I was aboard recently the

master had a young, newly qualified third mate to

act as his secretary. This officer was also able to re-

lieve another officer as necessary on the bridge or on

deck. The system worked admirably and what won-

derful experiential knowledge that young officer was

gaining in preparation for when he became Master.

Another suggestion comes from Rik F. van

Hemmen in his paper ‘The Need for Additional Hu-

man Factors Considerations in Ship Operations’

where he suggests that an additional officer be car-

ried as an environmental officer. This additional sea-

farer would be a chief officer or second engineer

nearing promotion and he / she would deal with all

the environmental requirements of the vessel whilst

understudying the master or chief engineer. I believe

that this position would also lend itself well to the

concept of mentoring and the transfer of experiential

knowledge.

7 CONCLUSIONS

‘The fundamentals of seafaring (for deck officers in

particular) have not changed over time. To put it

simply – to get from A to B without hitting anything,

running aground or sinking! For various reasons it

appears that many do not understand the basics now

at sea and that this lack of understanding is not

caused only by a lack of training.’

There is no doubt in my mind that the loss of the

transfer of experiential knowledge by mentoring is a

problem within today’s merchant fleet. My research

provides evidence, but I have also seen it with my

own eyes, particularly over the last ten years, as a pi-

lot and now as a marine consultant. It is not a ‘head-

line’ problem like fatigue and to the best of my

knowledge has yet to be cited during a root cause

analysis. But it exists and it needs to be addressed.

Is it too late? It certainly is a challenge, especially

when it is the most senior officers that lack the expe-

riential knowledge. But on the plus side it is a prob-

lem that can be solved, where anyone can instigate

change, what ever their position. I respectfully chal-

lenge everyone to engage in this conversation, to re-

flect on the vast amount of knowledge that you have

and to take a few minutes out of your busy schedules

to pass a piece of it on. It does not have to be much,

but it may just be that ‘gem of wisdom’ that makes

the difference in somebody’s life.

Consider also the experiences that you have had

in your life to date, some are good and some are bad,

but the knowledge that comes from those experienc-

es can only ever be good. I personally believe that,

as masters of our various trades, we have a tradition-

al duty to pass on our knowledge through mentoring

(or whatever you want to call it) and to put some-

thing back into our community of practice that has

given us so much.

For, whilst this is but ‘a drop in the ocean -

oceans are made of drops.’

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