419
1
INTRODUCTION
Biofoulingandcorrosionaretworelatedbutdistinct
phenomena that can have significant impacts on
varioustypesofmaterials,structures,andequipment,
especially those that are exposed to water or other
aqueousenvironmentslikerenewableenergymarine
structures (REMS). Biofouling refers to the
accumulationandgrowthofmicroorganisms,suchas
bacteria, algae, and other marine organisms, attach
andgrowonsurfacesincontactwithseawater[3,11].
This can occur in a variety of settings, from marine
vessels and offshore structures to water treatment
facilities and industrial equipment [4]. These
microorganisms can associate in a self‐produced
polymermatrixcalledbiofilm,
athinlayeroforganic
material which can serve as a substrate for the
attachment and growth of larger organisms called
macro‐organisms,resultinginmacro‐fouling,suchas
barnaclesandmussels[7,15].Thispolymermatrixcan
also include inorganic components, such as salts
and/orcorrosionproducts[2].Overtime,the
biofilm
can grow and become thicker, eventually leading to
theformationofafull‐fledgedcommunityofmarine
organisms on the surface. The formation of marine
biofouling can be influenced by a variety of factors,
suchaswatertemperature,nutrientavailability,water
flow,andthecompositionofthesurfaceitself
[6].For
example, surfaces that are smooth and free of
imperfections may be less prone to biofouling than
roughorirregularsurfaces.Similarly,waterwithhigh
levelsofnutrients,suchasnitrogenandphosphorus,
may promote the growth of biofilms and the
attachmentoflargerorganisms[12].
Antifouling and Anticorrosive Protection of Renewable
Energy Marine Structures with TiO
2
-Based Enamel
D.S.Sanz
1
,S.García
1
,L.Trueba‐Castañeda
1
,D.Boullosa‐Falces
2
&A.Trueba
1
1
UniversityofCantabria,Santander,Spain
2
UniversityoftheBasqueCountry,Portugalete,Spain
ABSTRACT:Biofoulingisasignificantproblemthataffectsrenewableenergymarinestructures(REMS),such
aswindturbinesandthosedesignedforwaveortidalenergyexploitation.Marineorganisms,includingalgae,
barnacles, and mollusks, attach themselves to the surface of these structures, which can
lead to reduced
efficiency and increased maintenance costs. In addition, biofouling can also cause corrosion, which can
compromisethestructuralintegrityoftheoffshoreplatforms.Tocombatthisproblem,severalmethodshave
beendeveloped,includinganti‐foulingcoatings,physicalmethods,andbiologicalmethods.Eachmethodhas
itsadvantagesanddisadvantages,and
themosteffectivesolutionoftendependsonthespecifictypeoffouling
andthelocationoftheoffshorestructure.Effectivebiofoulingpreventionisessentialforthesafeandefficient
operationof offshorestructuresand theprotection of marine ecosystems. Toprevent the spreadof invasive
species, an innovative ceramic coating
has been designed and tested in accordance with ASTM‐D3623
procedure.Theinvestigationresultsrevealedthat,afterfouryearsofexperimentationinarealenvironment,the
biofoulinggrowth observed in the splashzone oftheantifoulingpaintwas129.76%higher than that of the
titanium‐basedceramiccoatinganditis
expectedthatthisdifferencewillcontinuetogrowovertime.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 18
Number 2
June 2024
DOI:10.12716/1001.18.02.21
420
Corrosion, on the other hand, refers to the
deterioration of a material due to chemical or
electrochemical reactions with its environment. This
canoccurinmanydifferentforms,suchasrustingof
metal,crackingofconcrete,orsteeldegradation[17].
Corrosion can be caused by a variety of factors,
including
exposure to oxygen, moisture, acids, and
salts.Intheharshmarineenvironments,thepresence
ofsaltwaterandothercorrosiveagentscanaccelerate
therateofcorrosionandcausesignificantdamageto
structureovertime[1].Corrosioninmarinestructures
can have a range of negative impacts, including
reduced efficiency and
performance, increased
maintenancecosts,andevensafetyrisks.Forexample,
corrosion can weaken the structural integrity of an
offshore platform, increasing the risk of failure or
collapse[18].Corrosioncanalsocauseleaksandother
failuresinpipelinesandotherinfrastructure,leading
toenvironmentaldamageandoperationaldowntime.
Preventing or mitigating
corrosion in marine
structuresis therefore a crucial goalfor the offshore
renewable energy industries and their applications.
This can be achieved through a variety of methods,
such as using corrosion‐resistant materials, applying
protective coatings, and implementing corrosion
monitoring and maintenance programs. Effective
corrosion prevention and control measures can
help
to ensure the safe and reliable operation of marine
structures and equipment, while reducing costs and
minimizingenvironmentalimpacts[8].
Biofouling, or the accumulation of marine
organisms on REMS, can result in substantial
economic losses due to several factors such as
obstructed sensors, added weight and
thickness/rugosity to devices, and
decreased
structural integrity and performance [3]. Key
macrofouling organisms are responsible for these
negative impacts. Microfouling and macrofouling
organisms can also cause corrosion, which is a
significant economic impact [20]. Microbiologically
influenced corrosion (MIC) occurs when anaerobic
marine microorganisms induce or accelerate
corrosion, and macrofouling can facilitate MIC by
creating
oxygen‐depleted conditions under the
macrofoulerswheremicrobialcommunitiescangrow.
Some macrofoulers can also promote localized
corrosion by adhering or perforating substrata.
During maintenance, coating damage caused by
attached organisms can further accelerate corrosio n
[12].
Therelationshipbetweenbiofoulingandcorrosion
is complex, as the growth of microorganisms on a
surface can accelerate or exacerbate corrosion [10].
This is because microorganisms can produce acidic
substancesthatcaneatawayatthesurface,andalso
provide a surface for corrosion‐inducing agents to
attach and accumulate. Therefore, preventing or
mitigating biofouling is an important strategy for
controlling corrosion, and vice versa
so that both
parameters should be studied in parallel [20].
Antifouling (AF) and anticorrosive protection are
importantfactorsinthemaintenanceandlongevityof
marine structures, in this way, titanium‐based
enamels can provide effective antifouling and
anticorrosiveprotectionforthesestructures[16].
Titanium‐basedenamels are coatingsthatcontain
titanium
dioxide(TiO2)asthemainpigment.TiO2isa
naturally occurring substance which has excellent
propertiessuchashighrefractiveindex,opacity,and
resistance to UV [13]. When applied to marine
structures, titanium‐based enamels form a smooth,
hardsurfacethatisresistanttoadhesionandgrowth
of marine organisms due to its unique surface
chemistry and
physical properties. Specifically, the
surface of titanium exhibits a high degree of
hydrophilicity, meaning that it has a strong affinity
for water molecules. This hydrophilic property
preventstheattachment oforganic molecules,which
is the first step in the formation of biofilms and the
subsequent growth of larger fouling organisms [21].
In addition, the surface of titanium‐based coatings
alsohasauniquemicrostructurewhichcreatesathin
layer of titanium oxide that inhibits the adhesion of
marineorganismsbycreatingabarrierthatprevents
their attachment. On the other hand, the vitreous
structureofceramicglazesprovidesthecoatingwith
a smooth surface, with an averageroughness height
of 0.189μm [13], which makes it difficult for
microorganisms to adhere and facilitates their
detachmentwhenawavecrashesintothem[14].One
of the advantages of titanium‐based enamels is that
theyareenvironmentallyfriendlyanddonotcontain
toxic substances,
such as copper or other heavy
metals, which can be harmful to marine life. In
addition,thesecoatingshavebeenfoundtobehighly
durable and long‐lasting, even in harsh marine
environments[19].
Currently,therearemany obstacles thatlimitthe
useofceramicenamelasaprotectivecoating
forsteel
structures. Traditional methods of applying the
coating, such as dipping and wet spraying, are not
practicalforlargeobjectsexceptforcertainitemslike
chemical reactors and panels [22]. Additionally, a
sinteringprocessisrequiredtostrengthenandvitrify
thecoating,butthiscancause unwanted changesto
the
structure and strength of certain materials like
lightalloysandtemperedsteels,aswellasdistortion
and warping of the coated objects. In recent years,
thermalspraytechnologyhasemergedasapromising
alternative for applying ceramic coatings to a wide
rangeofmaterialsandsurfaces.Thisprocessinvolves
heating
ceramicparticlesandthenpropellingthemat
high velocity onto the surface to be coated [9]. This
method offers several advantages over traditional
methods, including the ability to coat large and
complex surfaces, the ability to tailor the coating to
specific requirements, and the ability to achieve a
high‐quality coating
with minimal distortion or
warping of the underlying material. In this context,
the application of ceramic coatings using thermal
sprayhasbecomeanincreasinglypopularsolutionfor
a range of industrial applications. The biggest
challenge in achieving high‐quality, corrosion‐
resistant ceramic enamel coatings through thermal
sprayingis the presence
ofvoids, gaps,microcracks,
and entrained gases between the flattened droplets.
These imperfectionsare caused by the rapidcooling
of the material after itʹs been sprayed. Despite
successful lab‐scale development of thermal spray
glass coatings for a variety of metallic and ceramic
substrates, these limitations have, up to now,
preventedwidespreadadoptionofthe technologyin
industrialapplications[13].
421
In this study, an experiment was conducted to
assess the effectiveness of a titanium‐based ceramic
coating in preventing biofouling and corrosion in
seawater, and the results were compared to those
obtained from a commercially available antifouling
paintIntersleek1001.Themaingoalwastoreducethe
adhesionof
biofilmtothesurfaceandinvestigatehow
the newly coated material affected the composition
and structure of the biofilm. This research is
particularly important for the antifouling field
because it involves a new environmentally‐friendly
technology that can improve efficiency and
productivity of offshore renewable energy marine
structures.
2
MATERIALSANDMETHODS
2.1
Areaofstudy
The Biofouling Research Group of the University of
Cantabria conducted the study on biological growth
in a natural environment at Molnedoʹs Dock
breakwaterjetty(43º27.713’N,03º47.541’W),located
in the Bay of Santander in Cantabria, Spain. The
researchwasconductedwiththeauthorizationof
the
SantanderPort Authority forexperimental activities.
The bay opens to the Atlantic Ocean through the
Cantabrian Sea and is located near the Biofouling
laboratoryʺEmilioEguíaʺattheE.T.S.deNauticaof
the University of Cantabria, making it an ideal
location for the experiment. Furthermore, the areas
near the
ports typically have the most conducive
abiotic and biotic conditions for biological growth.
Therefore,thechosenlocationforthestudyrepresents
themostrestrictive condition possible, as the results
of biological development would likely be much
lowerinopenwaters.
2.2
Preparationandcharacterizationofexperimental
samples
To apply the titanium‐based ceramic coating,
electrophoreticdepositionbythermalspraytechnique
wasusedoveracarbonsteelsurface(A569/A569M6,3
mmthickby200mmx300mm).ISO20340statesthat
steel structures in coastal and offshore areas are
exposed to high
levels of salt, and as a result are
classified as C5‐M. Therefore, they require a
protective paint system that meets certain minimum
requirements. To prepare the surfacefor painting, it
wascleanedusingablastcleaningprocesstoachieve
a final surface roughness of either Sa2.5 or Sa3
(according
to ISO 8503) and cleanliness (ISO 8501).
Once the surface was cleaned, dust and blast
abrasives were removed to ensure a clean surface
witharatingnotexceeding2accordingtoISO8502‐3.
For the first coat application, the metal surface was
completely dry, clean, free from oil/grease, and had
thespecifiedroughnessandcleanliness.
In order to achieve thinner coatings and lower
depositionrates,atomisticdepositionprocesseswere
used to apply titanium‐based ceramic coating.
Initially,a densemetallic under‐layer was deposited
between the functional ceramic topcoat and the
substrate using the high velocity air‐fuel spray
process,
which utilized compressed air instead of
oxygen. The purpose of this step was to protect the
substrate from corrosion and improve the adhesion
strengthoftheceramic enamel toplayer. Theuseof
HVAFtorcheswasfoundtobeaneffectivemethodof
depositingwatertightmetalliccoatingswithlowflaw
capacity,
resulting in even higher particle velocities
and lower particle temperatures. The paint coating
appliedhadatotalthicknessof600μm.
Ceramic coatings and autorelease paints exhibit
similaranti‐foulingproperties.Theantifoulingaction
of enamels is mainly based on four pillars: the
chemical composition, the surface roughness, the
contact
angle (CA) and the thickness of the coating.
The studiedceramic coating hastitaniumdioxide as
one of its key components. Figure 1 shows the
chemicalcompositionoftheceramiccoating.Theuse
of titanium in the composition of the coating also
providesenhancedstrength,durability,andresistance
tohightemperatures.
Figure1.Titanium‐basedceramiccoatingcomposition.
Once the titanium‐based ceramic coating was
applied to the experimental samples, the surface
roughness and the degree of hydrophilicity were
checkedaccordingtoASTMD7490‐13.Figure2shows
agraphoftheroughnessspectrummeasuredonthe
x‐axis of the sample. The measurements were taken
threetimesonthe
x‐axisandthreetimesonthey‐axis,
sothatthearithmeticmean ofthe sixmeasurements
equals 0.188μm. On the other hand, three
measurements of the drop angle were taken to
confirm the degree of hydrophilicity of the sample.
Theresultsofthemeasurementarepresentedin
Table
1.
µm
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 mm
Longitud = 12.5 mm Pt = 19.6 µm Escala = 30 µm
Figure2. Titanium‐based ceramic coatings surface finish
metrology.
Table1.Distilledwaterdropcontactangle.
________________________________________________
Nº Contact Adjustment Volume Area eight
angle error
(˚)μmμlmm
2
 mm
________________________________________________
1 25.5 1.55 9.53 29.27 0.673
2 21.2 1.15 6.16 24.55 0.514
3 25.8 1.84 7.64 25.06 0.630
M 24.17.78 26.29 0.606
________________________________________________
422
2.3
Experimentalphase
Once the ceramic coating characterization was
completedandverified,theexperimentalstagebegan
onOctober 6,2018,introducingthesamplesintothe
SantanderBaywater.AccordingtoASTMD3623‐78a,
thesampleswereintroducedinthesplashzonewitha
south orientation, and at a depth of 60
cm with a
northandsouthorientation.The experimentalphase
lasted four years and in it the samples mass was
measuredonceamonthtolatercalculatetheincrease
inmasswithrespecttotheinitialweight.Inaddition,
threetestsamplescoveredwithIntersleek1001paint
were introduced under
identical experimental
conditionstocomparetheresults.Ontheotherhand,
monthly measurements of water temperature were
takentoassessitsimpactonbiologicaldevelopment.
Before the experimentation began, samples were
weighed to determine their initial weight. After the
experimentation, their weight was measured again
andcomparedwiththeinitialweight
todetermineif
therewereanychangesinweight.Toensureaccurate
measurements, both the specimens coated with
titanium‐based coatings and the specimens coated
with Intersleek 1001 paint were washed to remove
any biofouling. This ensured that the weight
measurements were not affected by any external
factors and provided
reliable data for the study of
possiblecorrosion.
3
RESULTSANDDISCUSION
Figure 3 shows the quantitative evolution of the
weight increase of the samples exposed in a real
marine environment over a span of four years.
Furthermore, the aforementioned data is overloaded
onto a bar chart that visually depicts the seawater
temperatureduringthecourseoftheexperiment.As
shown in Figure 3, the highest values of seawater
temperatureoccur inthe summer months, while the
lowest values are reflected in the winter months, in
fact, February 8, 2020, recorded the lowest seawater
temperature value (11.9ºC), whereas the highest
temperaturevalue(21.6ºC)wereobservedonAugust
9,2021.
Regarding
thegrowthof biofouling in thesplash
zone,itwasobservedthatthetitanium‐basedceramic
coatingshowedsignificantlyhigherbiologicalgrowth
thantheantifoulingpaintduringthefirstninemonths
ofexposure,infact,theperformanceofthepaintwas
commendable,evenforanautoreleasepaintthatwas
tested under
static conditions, and it was in this
month of experimentationwhen the ceramic coating
exhibitedamuch greaterdifferenceinmassincrease
comparedtothepaint.Infact,thebiofoulingattached
to the ceramic coating was 276.32% more than that
attached to the Intersleek 1001 paint, making the
difference in
growth between the two quite
substantial. From the eleventh to the fourteenth
month,theinvestigationshowedthattheantifouling
paintexperiencedmassincreasevaluesslightlybelow
zero, meaning thatat this point in the investigation,
some of the paint had disappeared, which
subsequently affected its antifouling performance.
ThegraphinFigure
3,specificallyintheʺsouthsplash
zone,ʺindicatesthatthegrowth ofbiofouling onthe
ceramiccoatingisstronglylinkedtothetemperature
of the seawater, as also exemplified by the research
conducted by [5]. During thesummer months, there
wasahigherincreaseinmass,whiletheincreasewas
lowerduringthewintermonths.Thegrowthpattern
was observed to be stable and cyclical, with very
similarvaluesbetweenthesamemonthsof2020,2021,
and 2022. The highest value of biofouling was
achieved on August 9, 2021 with a mass increase of
222.0g.However,thebehaviorofthe
Intersleek1001
paintwasverydifferentand,coincidingwith[7],the
increase in biofouling gradually increased, reaching
much higher values in the last year of
experimentation.Infact,thebiofoulingincreaseinthe
antifouling paint was 129.76% greater than in the
titanium‐based ceramic coating in the last month of
experimentationanditisexpectedthatthisdifference
willcontinuetogrowovertime.
Regarding the results obtained in the experiment
60‐cm‐deepsouthzoneand60‐cm‐deepnorthzone,a
much lower biological development can be seen
compared to the splash zone in both antifouling
coatings. Although there
is a direct relationship
between temperature and biofouling growth, it is
much weaker than the relationship observed in the
splash graph.Towards the end of the experiment,it
wasfoundthatinthe60‐cm‐deepsouthzoneand60‐
cm‐deep north zone, the titanium‐based ceramic
coating experienced
141.85% and 69.41% less mass
increase,respectively,comparedtotheIntersleek1001
paint.
After the experimentation was completed, the
sampleswerecleanedandtheirweightwascompared
totheir initialvalues. Itwasobserved thatthe three
samples that were protected with titanium‐based
coatings maintained a weight very similar to
their
initial weight, indicating their ability to resist
corrosion. However, the samples coated with
antifoulingpaintshowedadecreaseof16.2%,21.3%,
and 19.5% in mass in the south splash, 60‐cm‐deep
southand60‐cm‐deepnorthzones,respectively.This
decrease in weight was due to two factors.
Firstly,
certainlayers of the paintcameoffin some areasof
the samples, and secondly, beginnings of corrosion
wereseenonsomeedgesofthesamples.
Figure3.Relationshipbetweenthemassincreaseofceramic
coatingsandthetemperatureofseawaterovertime.
423
4
CONCLUSIONS
This study focused on analyzing the anti‐fouling
properties of a titanium‐based ceramic coating and
comparing it with a reference antifouling paint
coating. Following a span of four years within a
natural environment that fostered evolution and
biological diversification of species, the behavior of
bothcoatingswasexamined,and
theextentofbiofilm
buildupwasquantified.Theresults showedthatthe
ceramic coating exhibited excellent properties in
preventing biological adherence. The properties that
influence the biofouling resistance of the ceramic
coating include its roughness, which impedes initial
adhesionandpromotesthedetachmentofbiofouling
communities, furthermore, the contact angle
of the
coating also plays a role, as a hydrophilic surface
hinders the initial adhesion of biofouling. While the
contact angle loses its impact once the initial
settlementoforganismshasoccurred,thedetachment
ofthebiofouling,resultingfromthelowroughnessof
thesurface,re‐establishestherelevanceofthe
contact
angle, thereby establishing a direct relationship
between both parameters. The antifouling and
anticorrosivefunctionalityofceramiccoatingsisalso
based on diverse AF additives to reject biofouling
adhesion,inthissense,titaniumhasshownexcellent
behavior.
Inaddition,aclearcorrelation hasbeenobserved
betweenseawatertemperatureandbiological
growth
in titanium‐based ceramic coatings, whereas the
development of organismsin the control antifouling
paint was more gradual, with a less pronounced
sensitivity to temperature variations. Upon
completion of the experiment, it was found that the
ceramic coating had achieved a reduction in
biofouling mass increase of 126.76%, 141.85%, and
69.14% as compared to the antifouling paint in the
splashsouthzone,60‐cm‐deepsouthzone,and60‐cm‐
deepnorthzone,respectively.
REFERENCES
[1]Abbas, M., & Shafiee, M. (2020). An overview of
maintenance management strategies for corroded steel
structures in extreme marine environments. Marine
Structures,71,102718.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2020.102718
[2]Boullosa‐Falces, D., García, S., Sanz, D., Trueba, A., &
Gomez‐Solaetxe,M.A.(2020).CUSUMchartmethodfor
continuous monitoring of antifouling
treatment of
tubular heat exchangers in open‐loopcooling seawater
systems.Biofouling,36(1),73–85.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08927014.2020.1715954
[3]Boullosa‐Falces, D., Gomez‐Solaetxe, M. A., Sanchez‐
Varela,Z.,García,S.,&Trueba,A.(2019).Validationof
CUSUM control chart for biofouling detection in heat
exchangers. Applied Thermal Engineering, 152.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.02.009
[4]Boullosa‐
Falces, D., Sanz, D. S., Garcia, S., Trueba‐
Castañeda, L., & Trueba, A. (2022). Predicting tubular
heat exchanger efficiency reduction caused by marine
biofilmadhesionusingCFDsimulations.Biofouling,1–
11.https://doi.org/10.1080/08927014.2022.2110493
[5]Costa, F. C. R., Ricci, B. C., Teodoro, B., Koch, K.,
Drewes, J. E., & Amaral, M. C.
S. (2021). Biofouling in
membrane distillation applications‐a review.
Desalination, 516, 115241.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2021.115241
[6]García,S.,&Trueba,A.(2018).InfluenceoftheReynolds
number on the thermal effectiveness of tubular heat
exchanger subjected to electromagnetic field‐based
antifoulingtreatmentinanopenonce‐throughseawater
coolingsystem.AppliedThermalEngineering,
140,531–
541.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.05.069
[7]García, S., Trueba, A., Boullosa‐Falces, D., Islam, H., &
Guedes Soares, C. (2020). Predicting ship frictional
resistance due to biofouling using Reynolds‐averaged
Navier‐Stokes simulations. Applied Ocean Research,
101.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2020.102203
[8]Gkatzogiannis,S.,Weinert,J.,Engelhardt,I.,Knoedel,P.,
&Ummenhofer,T.(2019).
Correlationoflaboratoryand
real marine corrosionfor the investigationof corrosion
fatigue behaviour of steel components. International
JournalofFatigue,126,90–102.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2019.04.041
[9]Łatka, L., Pawłowski, L., Winnicki, M., Sokołowski, P.,
Małachowska, A., & Kozerski, S. (2020). Review of
Functionally Graded Thermal Sprayed Coatings.
AppliedSciences,
10(15),5153.
https://doi.org/10.3390/app10155153
[10]Li, H., Xin, L., Zhang, K., Yin, X., & Yu, S. (2022).
Fluorine‐freefabricationofrobustself‐cleaningandanti‐
corrosionsuperhydrophobiccoatingwithphotocatalytic
functionforenhancedanti‐biofoulingproperty.Surface
andCoatingsTechnology,438,128406.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2022.128406
[11]Sanz,D.S.,García,S.,Trueba,
A.,Trueba‐Castañeda,L.,
Islam, H., Guedes Soares, C., & Boullosa‐Falces, D.
(2022).Numericanalysisofthebiofoulingimpactonthe
ship resistance with ceramic coating on the hull. In
Trends in Maritime Technology and Engineering
Volume1(pp.443–449).CRCPress.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003320272‐49
[12]Sanz,D.S.,Garcia,S.,
Trueba,A.,Vega,L.M.,Trueba‐
Castaneda,L.,&Boullosa‐Falces,D.(2021).Application
of ceramic coatings to minimize the frictional drag
penaltyonships.OCEANS2021:SanDiego–Porto,1–5.
https://doi.org/10.23919/OCEANS44145.2021.9706045
[13]Sanz,D.S.,García,S.,Trueba,L.,&Trueba,A.(2021).
Bioactive Ceramic Coating Solution for
Offshore
Floating Wind Farms. TransNav, the International
Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea
Transportation,15(2).
[14]Schultz, M. P. (2004). Frictional Resistance of
Antifouling Coating Systems. Journal of Fluids
Engineering,126(6).https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1845552
[15]Trueba, A., Vega, L. M., García, S., Otero, F. M., &
Madariaga,E.(2016).Mitigationof
marinebiofoulingon
tubes of open rack vaporizers using electromagnetic
fields.WaterScienceandTechnology,73(5),1221–1229.
https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2015.597
[16]Wang,R.,Zhou,T.,Liu,J.,Zhang,X.,Yang,J.,Hu,W.,
& Liu, L. (2021). Designing novel anti ‐biofouling
coatingsontitaniumbased ontheferroelectric‐induced
strategy.Materials&
Design,203,109584.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2021.109584
[17]Xia,D.‐H.,Qin,Z.,Song,S.,Macdonald,D.,&Luo,J.‐L.
(2021).Combatingmarinecorrosiononengineeredoxide
surfacebyrepelling,blockingandcapturingCl−: Amini
review.CorrosionCommunications,2,1–7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corcom.2021.09.001
[18]Yang, Y., Wu, Q., He, Z., Jia, Z., &
Zhang, X. (2019).
Seismic Collapse Performance of Jacket Offshore
Platforms with Time‐Variant Zonal Corrosion Model.
AppliedOceanResearch,84,268–278.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2018.11.015
[19]Yi,P.,Jia,H.,Yang,X.,Fan,Y.,Xu,S.,Li,J.,Lv,M.,&
Chang, Y. (2023). Anti‐biofouling properties of TiO
2
coating with coupled effect of photocatalysis and
microstructure. Colloids and Surfaces A:
424
Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 656, 130357.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2022.130357
[20]Yu,Y.,Wei,Y.,Li,B.,Gao,H.,Liu,T.,Luan,X.,Qiu,R.,
& Ouyang, Y. (2022). Bioinspired metal‐organic
framework‐basedliquid‐infusedsurface(MOF‐LIS)with
corrosionandbiofoulingprohibitionproperties.Surfaces
andInterfaces,34,102363.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2022.102363
[21]Zhao,W.,
Yang,J.,Guo,H.,Xu,T.,Li,Q.,Wen,C.,Sui,
X.,Lin,C.,Zhang,J.,&Zhang,L.(2019).Slime‐resistant
marine anti‐biofouling coating with PVP ‐based
copolymer in PDMS matrix. Chemical Engineering
Science,207,790–798.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2019.06.042
[22]Zhou,X.,Song,W.,Yuan,J.,Gong,Q.,Zhang,H.,
Cao,
X.,&Dingwell,D.B.(2020).Thermophysicalproperties
and cycliclifetimeof plasma sprayed SrAl 12 O 19 for
thermal barrier coating applications. Journal of the
American Ceramic Society, 103(10), 5599–5611.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.17319