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1 INTRODUCTION
Accidentshavealwaysbeenaninevitablepartoflife,
making safety crucial in every profession. Some of
themrequiremoreprecautionsthanothers.Lifeatsea
is often associated with high risk [1]. Therefore, the
modern shipping industry puts big effort into
ensuring the safety of seafarers
[2]–[7]. Despite it,
some disasters occur, and some of them have a
profoundimpactonhumanunderstandingofsafety.
OneoftheexamplescanbethesinkingoftheTitanic
leading to creation of the Safety Of Life At Sea
convention,whichdramaticallychangedtheviewon
safety in the shipping
industry [2], [3], [5]. Even
thoughsuchvast changesarerare,somelessonscan
bedrawnfromeveryaccident,thusleadingtosafety
improvements [8]. Every maritime accident is
thoroughlyinvestigatedbyagroupofspecialistsand
resultsoftheirworkarepresentedinreportsexactly
to producesuch lessons
learnt. Dekker suggested in
hispaper[8]thatreportscanfulfilvariousfunctions,
depending on their purpose. He suggested
distinguishing4ofthem[8]:
Epistemological meant to extensively explain
findings, causes, and effects. In order to fulfil
presuppositions of this role creators have to go
throughvariouspointsofview
Existentialthatresonateswiththeneedforcontrol
and justice. Suffering without reason tends to be
evenworsesoit iscrucialtohelpsufferingattain
meaning. By doing so it tries to calm down
suffering.Peoplewouldratherbeguiltythanfeel
helpless.
Preventive aimed at preventing
repetition of
mistakes that caused the accident. Similarly to
Epistemologicalfunction,causesareexplainedbut
existentialwhyisn’talwayscovered.
Moral that traces transgressions. By doing so it
gives instructions on moral and regulatory
boundaries.
Outcome of the investigation can be seriously
influencedby thecommissioningparty. Tworeports
Maritime Accident Information
–
Entrants’ Evaluation
of Dissemination Forms
O.Kocur&K.Żochowska
GdyniaMaritimeUniversity,Gdynia,Poland
ABSTRACT:Safetyisoneofthemostimportantfactorstakenintoconsiderationinmodernshippingindustry.
To reduce the number of accidents, it is crucial to deliver information about past disasters to maritime
specialists.Conditionsofworkatseademandtoacquirethemostknowledgein
theshortestpossibletime.This
paperevaluates variousforms of presentationof suchinformationinorder to findhowefficientthey arein
terms of data quality, usefulness and time required to comprehend them. Research was conducted among
studentsoftheGdyniaMaritimeUniversity.Thestudentswerepresentedwithdifferent
materialfollowedbya
test. The best results were achieved with infographic and lecture presentation. Full reports were found too
complextobeusedonadailybasisdespitetheirundeniableroleinaccidentinvestigation.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 18
Number 1
March 2024
DOI:10.12716/1001.18.01.0
7
88
based on the same facts, but ordered by different
organizations are prone to favouring evidence
convenient for one side. As Kurtuluş said,
“information is not a copy of reality but its
reconstructionbyhumanbeing”[9].Inourstudywe
want to establish to what degree maritime accident
reports are
covering educational function, or as
Dekkerspecifiedpreventativeandmoralones[8].
In todayʹs society, the flow of information is
enormous and it is not easy to process all the
knowledgepeoplegaineveryday[9].Additionallyin
the maritime industry, navigational officers have a
veryrestrictedamountof
timethattheycandevoteto
learning while on the ship. Inspired by a study
conductedby[10] we havelearned that their results
indicatearelativelylowrateofutilizationoforiginal
accidentreports.Thatstudywasconductedregarding
sharp‐endoperators,peopleworkinginthemaritime
sector with hands
‐on experience of operations. To
drawfurther implicationsforeducationandtraining
purposes,wehavedecidedtotakealookatthisissue
from entrants’ perspective. It is important to
investigate whether maritime students actually read
accidentreportssinceoneoftheirpurposesistoserve
asalearningtool.
Ifnot,thenwhatotherformofpost‐
accident learning would students prefer and which
would prove the most efficient? Considering the
above mentioned factors, materials covering
importantsubjectshavetobedesignedwithregardto
intended use in order to fulfil their function.
Therefore, the purpose of the study undertaken
was
twofold:(1)toidentifytheoptimumwaytodistribute
informationaboutmaritimeaccidentsand(2)tofinda
feasiblecompromise between low timeconsumption
and high efficiency in gaining knowledge from past
accidents?
Toachievethegoal,weconductedastudyamong
studentsofouruniversitybydividingthem
ingroups
andrequestingtofinishatestafterfamiliarizingwith
givenstudymaterial.
The results can be found meaningful by
government bureaux maritime crew training centres
andalleducationalfacilities.
2 MATERIALSANDMETHODS
As a base of our study we have chosen listing,
flooding,andgroundingofm/vHöegh
Osaka[11].At
2109UTCon3 January2015,thepurecarandtruck
carrier (PCTC) Höegh Osaka was rounding West
BramblebuoyinTheSolentStraitwhenitdeveloped
a significant starboard list, causing some cargo shift
andconsequentflooding.Withthelistinexcessof40°,
the ship
lost steerage and propulsion, and
subsequently drifted onto Bramble Bank, grounding
at2115UTC.Allcrewweresafelyevacuatedfromthe
ship and surrounding waters by authorities. There
was no resulting pollution, and the ship was later
successfullysalvaged,asofFebruary2023thevesselis
stillinoperation.
Based on
the Report we have prepared
Infographic, Briefing, and Summary. Along with
givenby MAIB SafetyFlyer andVideo,six different
approachestothestorycouldbepresented.Foreach
form of dissemination, we have created a group of
randomly assigned students. They were asked to
familiarizethemselveswithgivenmaterial
andtofill
in a survey. A group initially consisted of 8
participants,yetduetounevenreturnrateresultsare
basedon4–8responses(33intotal).Whenthesurveys
returnedwehaveanalysedthemintermsofanswers
correctnessandsafetylessonsunderstood.
2.1 Respondents
Demographicdetailsofthe
respondentsareprovided
inFigures1‐4
Figure1.Respondentsgenderdetails.Ownelaboration
Figure2.Respondentsagedetails.Ownelaboration
Figure3. Respondents academic year details. Own
elaboration
Figure4. Respondents english level details. Own
elaboration
89
2.2 Presentedforms
The following sections discuss the forms of
informationpresentationdistributedtothestudents.
2.2.1 AccidentReport
Reportsareresultsofinvestigationsledmostlyby
government bureaux, they are meant to improve
safety and rise awareness of hazardous situations at
sea. Information covered by the report range
from
past crew experience, narrative of accident through
recommendations for improvements. What is worth
mentioning, general culprit of accident is not
normally pointed out by the bureau [6]. Amount of
details the reports contain usually makes them long
and hard to comprehend in reasonable time.
Elaborated form allows investigators to include
storytellingaswellasfactsintabularform.
This particular Report was delivered by MAIB
(MaritimeAccidentInvestigationBranch),itcontains
86 pages and 6 annexes. Main sections are: factual
information, analysis, conclusions, actions taken,
recommendations. All further forms are based on a
givenReport.
2.2.2 SafetyFlyer
Asan
annextotheoriginalReport[11],theSafety
Flyeris meanttoconcludeallimportantinformation
in the shortest possible way. This presupposition
forces investigators to omit extended storytelling.
Also,somenotcrucial,yetuseful,factsmaybeleftout
makingithardertocomprehendtheaccident.Safety
Flyer is often
considered as an introduction to the
accidentReportorareminder.
Thisparticularflyerwasprovidedasanappendix
fortheReportbyMAIB,onlyonephotoisincluded.
Entiretext,excludinggraphic,canbefittedononeA4
size page and is divided in three parts: Narrative,
Findings,and
SafetyLessons.
2.2.3 Infographic
Infographicsisaformofstorytellingwithgraphics
and text, the concept is based upon Picture
Superiority Effect [12], [13]. According to this
phenomenon, the human brain is more likely to
remember information that is presented in graphic
form. They are best suited for presenting, otherwise
hard
tocomprehend,setsofdatainanaccessibleway
[9]. Students nowadays develop so‐called clip‐
thinking[14]asaformofcopingwithrapidgrowthof
information flow. Such a way of comprehending
informationhelpswithmultitaskingandreducestime
requiredforswitchingtasks,howeverlinearformsare
becoming
progressivelyhardertofacilitate[14].Those
factspresentgraphicformsasthemostpromisingin
termsofthestudy.Factorsthatshouldbeconsidered
inaprocessofdesign[12]
structure,
accuracy,
reliability,
depth,
functionality,
decoration.
Among these, aesthetics is the least important as
even
the most beautiful piece of art won’t be useful
withoutadatabackground.Inordertogetthemost
out of an infographic, its structure has to match the
kindofdatathatisbeingpresented.Becauseofthat,
H.Naparin and A. Nibti Saad [12] suggested the
followingcategories:
Comparison
FlowChart
Timeline
Process
Image‐based
Data
Narrative
Metaphor
Combination
Other
Our Infographic was prepared for printing as an
A2poster,yetitcouldbealsousedonascreen.Pieces
ofinformationweredividedintosixgroups:
Thevessel
TheCrew
Theaccident
Timeline
Salvageoperation
Findings
Each section was supplemented with relevant
picturesandgraphics.
2.2.4 Film
Some bureaux create videos explaining causes of
accidentsinawaythatfosterslearning[15].Usually,
theseprovidevisualizationsandrealfootagefromthe
deck. Similarly
to infographics, this form combines
graphics with storytelling condensed in short form.
Eventhoughitcanbeagreatadditiontootherforms,
video requires more time and effort to prepare, it is
alsolimitedtofewerwaysofdistribution.
This particular Film was published by MAIB via
YouTube platform [16].
Its main content is an
interview with the chief inspector of maritime
accidentsandfootagefromthesalvageoperation.
2.2.5 Briefing
Briefingisashortmeetingconcerningaparticular
topic, this form was suggested as efficient in the
Norwegianstudyduetothestorytellingopportunities
[10]. Nowadays, briefings are often
used by
companiestoincreasesafetyandawareness.Theform
leavesroomfordifferentmediabeingusedincluding
discussion, it is typically focused on graphics and
statistics.Duringmeetings,participantscanaskabout
details that are particularly important for them, this
wayanopportunitytofitinformationtotheneedsof
receiversiscreated.Asadownside,wecouldconsider
the cost of organizing meetings and the amount of
time that isn’t always utilized in the most efficient
way[17],[18].
Our Briefing used a PowerPoint presentation
summarizing the most significant facts and expertsʹ
opinions. To match industry standards, time was
limitedtoabout15minuteswithadditionalquestion
time.
90
2.2.6 Summary
To find balance between accident Report and
Safety Flyer, we have created a Summary. Our
intentionwastodeliverstorytellingalongwithfactual
information without unnecessary details. First part
contained ship characteristics with a short narrative,
whereas the second described causes and findings
moredeeply.Overallitconsists
of7pagesincludinga
fewgraphics.Inordertoextractmostessentialpieces
of information we have cut out those that were not
essential to understand the safety lessons. Also,
factual information was condensed to give a clear
overviewwithoutunnecessarydetails.
2.3 Survey
Uponfamiliarizationwithmaterial,participants
were
requested to complete a test prepared via Google
Form. There was no specific time limit for
compilation,participantswereonlyaskednot to use
anynotesduringthetest.Therewerefourmainparts
that checked different aspects: factual information
knowledge,understandingofsafetylessons,thoughts
about presented form. Last
part of the test was
collectingdataofrespondentsforstatisticalpurposes.
EntirestudywasconductedinEnglishduetothe
fact that original materials were delivered in this
language. Even though respondents were Polish‐
speaking students, working at sea requires good
languageskillsnomatterthenationality.That’swhy
after making sure of their English level we have
decidedthatitwon’tinfluencethestudyinanyway.
3 RESULTS
Below we present some of our findings. One of the
questions referred to a preferable form of data
presentation.Participantswereaskedtoindicatetheir
favourite form of data presentation.
It was an open
questiontoomitinfluencinganswersandmaybefind
newanswersthatwehadn’tthoughtaboutourselves.
Someoftherespondentslefttheanswerspaceempty,
some put twooptions so thatis why the number of
answersdonotmatchthenumberofparticipants.The
results
aredepictedinFigures5and6.
Figure5. Answers to “What is your preferred form of
gainingsuchinformation?”question.Ownelaboration
Figure6.Preferableformofdatapresentationwithinagiven
group of people with the same study material. Own
elaboration
AnswersdepictedinFigure5couldbeinfluenced
bywhatformaspecificparticipantwasgiveninthis
studytofamiliarizewith.Toverifythishypothesiswe
broke down previous results into groups based on
studymaterialsgiventoparticipants.Thiswas done
tocheckifrespondentshavetheirownpreferences
or
did they simply stick to materials they were
familiarized with earlier. For example, the first bar
from the left: from all the respondents who were
presented with Infographic as study material nearly
70% choose Infographics as their preferable form of
datapresentation.
Another part of the test was short
one‐choice
questions. Each test was the same in order to check
participants’ understanding of the accident after
familiarization with their study materials. Figure 7
presents the percentage of correct answers among
respondentsingroupsbasedontheirstudymaterial.
Figure7.Percentageofcorrectanswerstofactualquestions
bya group of respondents giventhesamestudymaterial.
Ownelaboration
Most accurate in answering short detailed
questions were respondents presented with the
Briefing and Infographic. Least amount of correct
answerswerecollectedfromtheSafetyFlyerandthe
Film.
In order to determine which factors increase
participantsʹ awareness of the accident and help
comprehend material easier we needed to establish
the
level of helpfulness provided by particular
elements of study materials. Considered
characteristics were storytelling, graphics and
91
statistics. Respondents were asked to mark those
aspectsoneachpresentedmaterialonascalefrom1
to5.Criteriawashowmuchdidcertainfactorhelpto
understandtheaccident.Figure8pictureshowthose
factorswereratedwithinparticularstudymaterials.
Figure8. In what degree did particular elements of study
materialhelpyouunderstandtheaccident.Ownelaboration
4 DISCUSSION
Resultsmostly support initial assumptions:themost
effective ways of information dissemination turned
out to be Briefing along with Infographics.
Storytellinggiveningraphicformwasfoundtohave
thebiggestchanceofbeingmemorized.Linearforms
of presenting data proved to be challenging for
students as they require
a long attention span, thus
increasing cognitive workload. Even short, purely
textual,formswereconsideredtoodemanding.Ideal
form should be condensed and contain graphic
materialsthatallowthereadertofollowthestory.It
encouragesstudentstofocusonagivenmaterial.
For better understanding, each form will be
discussedseparately.
4.1 Report
GeneralfeedbackregardingtheReportwasnegative.
Duetoitslength,studentsusuallylimitedtheireffort
to scanning the text, thus overlooking any extensive
texts. This led to significant lack of detailed
knowledge,eventothepointwherenosafetylessons
could be observed. Storytelling did not
help with
understanding the case as it was lost in overall
amount of data. In fact, the highest rating of
storytelling usefulness was 60%. Although reading
thereportwasmostlyneglectedbyparticipants,one
answer indicated a careful familiarisation with the
study material. Level of understanding and
correctnesswashigh.
Aconclusioncanbedrawnthat
onlylazinessandlackoftimeisanobstacletoreports
beinguseful.
4.1.1 SafetyFlyer
Contrary to expectations, Safety Flyer turned out
tobehardtoreadandcomprehend.Respondentshad
little to none factual knowledge and presented very
poorconclusions.Quitetheopposite,
afalsefeelingof
understandingmay be found disturbing. Ifa person
triedtobasetheir actionsoninformationfoundin a
flyer, it could lead to a potentially dangerous
situation. This form shouldn’t be used in separation
fromthereportorotherelaboratedmedia,butcanbe
afeasible
addition.
4.1.2 Film
EventhoughanswersbasedontheFilmwerethe
least correct, this form was the most popular choice
globally (31% of respondents). Similarly to Safety
Flyer,outcomeofthequestionnaireshowedalackof
understanding. Topic was covered narrowly,
resulting in poor conclusions. Interestingly,
respondents showed confidence with
answers even
though they were mostly wrong. No advantage of
picture effect could be caused by prioritizing
aestheticsoverfactualinformation.
4.1.3 Infographics
Infographics, as expected, turned out to be the
most effective way of information dissemination.
Alongwithasatisfyingleveloftopicunderstanding,
studentsgradedthisformas
pleasingtouseandeasy
to read. Amount of data was optimal to deliver a
necessary level of knowledge without overloading
readers. Nearly all the answers were correct, one
exception was due to lack of information given.
VersatilityofInfographicisverypromising,itcanbe
usedincountlesssituationswithout
changes.
4.1.4 Briefing
Briefingwas a successjudging by the correctness
oftheanswers,mostparticipantshavefoundituseful.
Alotofknowledgecouldbepresentedinarelatively
shorttime.Mosttroublewascausedbyreservingtime
ofsixpersons,butthiscanbeovercomebyorganizing
the
workshop during regular classes. Due to the
nature of in‐person meeting, participants couldnʹt
return to the exact information given during the
Briefing.
4.1.5 Summary
Summarywasn’tassuccessfulasexpected,itwas
oftenmistaken asafullReport.A conclusioncan be
drawn that students do not know what
a report is.
Somecommentsstatedthatevensuchcondensedtext
is too long to easily comprehend. Nevertheless,
answersshowedgoodknowledgeandunderstanding
ofcauses.
4.2 Preferencesvsresults
Correctnessoftheanswerscomparedtothepreferred
forms show that most students are unaware of the
effectiveness of the
materials. Film was the most
frequentchoiceasthepreferableformpickedbynine
respondents, followed by Briefing‐six respondents
and Report‐five respondents. The least amount of
respondentshavevotedinfavourofsocialmediaand
92
SafetyFlyer,eachgainingoneresponse.Theresultsof
the “preferred form of data presentation” made us
consider whether the respondents were actually
familiarwithallthepresentedformsordidtheyjust
sticktotheformtheywerefamiliarizedwithearlierin
this study or at some other occasion.
Students were
pronetochoosethesameformthattheyweregivenin
the study in case of Infographic, Summary and
Briefing. Although the Film was the most popular
preferredformglobally(ninevotes)itdidn’tmanage
tobecomethemostpopularinanyofthegroups.In
this case,
the majority voted for Report as the most
popular, whereas Summary was voted as preferable
by participants given Reports. Some forms were
mainlypresentwithinresponsesgivenbyparticipants
withthis particular form.For example,SafetyFlyers
appear only once and Infographics can be found
mainly as a response form Infographics
holders.
Students may be unaware of the variety of forms
available and how they can be utilized. Ability to
distinguishthemostsuitablematerialforasettaskis
evenmoreimportantthanthedataitself.
Respondents regularly could not tell whether
presentedmaterialwasafullReportora
Summary.It
leads to the conclusion that even maritime students
don’tusethiskindofmaterialsonadailybasis.Itis
mostlikelycausedbyunnecessarycomplexityofthe
Report.
4.3 Limitations
Study was conducted over the period of six months
due to lack of response from some students. The
initialgoalof33participantshadbeenmetafterthree
roundsofsend‐outs.Equalnumberofeachformhad
been sent yet not all participants have filled in the
survey. In the end, forms were evaluated based on
merely four to seven answers. Surveys indicated as
being based on
Report had to be checked by
consultation with respondents due to mix‐ups of
Report and Summary. Moreover, students originate
fromthesameuniversityandrepresentthesameage
groupwhatmakesthemahomogenicgroup.Halfof
the materials have been prepared by professional
investigators of MAIB whereas the other
three have
been created by authors of the research. In order to
reduceimpactofpossibleerrorsinmaterials,multiple
Reportscouldbescoped.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Despite losses involved, past accidents present an
opportunitytolearnfrommistakesmade duringthe
relevant chains of events and factors contributing to
them.
It is of utmost importance that a proper
approach be taken in Maritime Education and
Training facilities to maximize the outcome of such
lessons.
The objective of the performed study was to
determine the most efficient dissemination form in
ordertoincreasesafetyawarenessatsea.Itiscrucial
toknow
awaytotransfertheinformationefficiently
and effectively. It was achieved through a survey
distributedamong a groupof studentsfrom Gdynia
Maritime University who were familiarized with
different study material about the same maritime
accident. Their answers let us determine to what
degree the given dissemination form was
fitting
criteria of effectiveness, correctness and efficiency.
Resultsindicatethatthemosteffectivedissemination
forms are Infographic and Briefing. Both of them
achieved 100% correctness and showed a deep
understanding of causes and safety lessons. They
wereratedbystudentsaspleasanttoworkwithand
gotoverallbestfeedback.
Future
researchmayinvolvecombiningcoupleof
dissemination forms together. For example, even
better results than from briefing itself may be
obtained after providing respondents with
infographicasareminderlater.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authorsarethankfulto:
Dr. Krzysztof Wróbel and Mr. Mateusz Gil of Gdynia
Maritime University for their assistance in reviewing the
initial version of the manuscript and guidance in research
preparation.
Ms. MariaŁozińska for assistance in reviewing the initial
versionofthemanuscript.
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