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1 INTRODUCTION

The waterborne transport of cargo and passengers is

one human activity that has a global increasing

environmental impact [4]. Over 80% of the volume

and 70% of the total value of international trade in

goods is carried by the sea [5]. In the EU, maritime

transport is responsible for 77% of external trade and

35% of intra-EU trade [6]. Baltic Sea maritime

transport makes up about 15% of all cargo globally

transported via sea, which makes it one of the busiest

maritime areas all over the world [1]. The total length

of shipping lanes in Estonian sea areas is 1700 km,

while shipping lanes of international importance

(HELCOM shipping lanes) make up more than half of

it (950 km) [7]. At the same time shipping operations

create environmental pressures to the air, discharges

of oil, sewage from passenger ships as well as

invasion of alien organisms from ships’ ballast water

or hulls [2].

International maritime shipping accounts for less

than 3% of annual global CO

2 emissions, hence

shipping is considered one of the lowest carbon

dioxide (CO

2) emitting modes of transport per

distance and weight carried [6], [8]. For instance, in

EU, ships generate 13,5% of all GHG emissions caused

by transport, whereas road transport is responsible for

71% and aviation 14,4%, nevertheless, pollution from

shipping activities has been found to have significant

impact on the air and water quality and marine and

estuarine biodiversity [8]. The total greenhouse gas

(GHG) emissions of the world shipping that include

carbon dioxide (CO

2), methane (CH4), and nitrous

oxide (N

2O) increased from 977 million tonnes in 2012

to 1076 million tonnes in 2018 (9,6% growth) [9].

According to the UNCTAD 2022 report, the vessel

types with the highest emissions increase between

2020 and 2021 were container ships, dry bulk carriers

and general cargo vessels, but also from vehicle, ro-ro

Shipping Related Activities and Their Environmental

Impact

– Lessons Learnt from the Estonian Case Study

M.L. Tombak

, U. Tapaninen

& R. Palu

Estonian Maritime Academy, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia

Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, Kouvola, Finland

ABSTRACT: Baltic Sea maritime transport makes up about 15% of all cargo globally transported via sea, which

makes it one of the busiest maritime areas all over the world [1]. At the same time shipping operations create

environmental pressures to the air, discharges of oil, sewage from passenger ships as well as invasion of alien

organisms from ships’ ballast water or hulls [2]. In order to move from assessment of discharges from one ship

to a certain area, it is necessary to combine the discharge factors to the activity patterns [3]. In this study the

shipping activities that have environmental impact in the Estonian sea area will be analysed. In addition, the

activities will be related with their source of pollution (e.g., manoeuvring, anchoring, loading/unloading cargo)

and the impact or consequences are analysed (e.g.,

emission to air (CO2, SOx, NOx) discharge to water

(antifouling paints, scrubber water, ballast water, bilge water, black water), physical discharge (underwater

noise) etc). Finally, we assess the relative importance of the environmental effect of shipping in Estonian waters.

http://www.transnav.eu

the

International Journal

on Marine Navigation

and Safety of Sea

Transportation

Volume 17

Number 4

December 2023

DOI: 10.12716/1001.17.04.

974

and passenger vessels. [5] Ships that are registered

under the flag of an EU Member State make up to

17.6% of the total world fleet when measured in dead

weight tonnage (DWT) [8] and are divided into ship

types (not including fishing vessels) as other work

vessels (including tugs, barges etc vessels that usually

work in ports) - 30%, passenger ships - 19% and

tankers - 17% of which, respectively, 45% are RoPax

and 45% are chemical tankers [10]. In 2019 there were

roughly 18000 ships registered under EU flags,

accounting for 266 million GT and passenger ships

that were registered to EU flags were able to carry 1.3

million passengers, therefore representing 40% of the

world’s passenger transport capacity [6], [10].

The Baltic Sea is a 392 978 km2 semi-enclosed

second largest brackish water body in the world, after

the Black Sea [11], [12]. It is 54m deep on average and

due to the shallowness of the Danish Straits, ships

with depth up to 15m can cross to the Baltic Sea,

whereas bigger ships can only enter if empty or

partially loaded [11], [12]. The sea is surrounded by

eight EU member states - Denmark, Germany, Poland,

Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Sweden and

Russia, but five more countries are in the catchment

area - the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, the

Ukraine, Belarus and Norway [11], [12]. The Baltic Sea

area has been designated as a special area in

accordance with the International Convention for the

Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)

Annexes I (oil), IV (sewage), V (garbage), and VI (for

Sulphur) [2]. As a result, there are strict IMO

restrictions on discharge into the Baltic Sea of oil or

oily mixtures, sewage from passenger ships and

garbage [2]. Furthermore, there are other measures to

reduce the pollution, for example The Baltic Marine

Environment Protection Commission (HELCOM), that

seeks to protect the Baltic Sea from all sources of

pollution from land, air and sea [2].

Impact of shipping related activities to the

environment cannot be underestimated. First of all

due to the consequences that those may have on the

surrounding in the long term and secondly due to the

tightening regulations of EU and IMO in the area. In

April 2018 the IMO adopted its initial strategy to

reduce GHG emissions from ships at least 50% by

2050 compared to 2008 level and 40% by the year 2030

compared to 2008 [13]. In July 2021, the European

Commission set the target to reduce GHG emissions

at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 level (Fit for 55

package) [8]. Shipping operations at sea and also at

berth are everyday significant sources of different

pollution [14], for example discharges to water, air

emission and physical impacts, such as noise and

artificial light [4].

There are three levels of waterborne traffic in the

Estonian sea area [7]:

1. International shipping traffic that takes place in the

Gulf of Finland between ports of other European

ports and ports that are in the Gulf of Finland

north-eastern part of the Baltic Sea, including

large-scale transportation of oil and oil products,

as well offshore fishing with trawlers.

2. Local shipping traffic (e.g., ferry traffic between

mainland and islands).

3. Small vessel traffic (smaller fishing vessels, yachts,

fishing boats), the intensity of which is seasonally

different, as well as seasonal sea tourism and water

sports (kayaking, surfing, etc.).

About pollution of the marine environment from

small ships throughout the Baltic Sea scope, a detailed

overview is provided in the Johansson et al. article

[15].

The main question of this study is to find out what

kind of shipping related environmental impacts are

relevant in the Estonia sea area? In order to answer

that question, we first need to answer:

1. What shipping activities have an impact on the

environment?

2. What kind of impact do those activities have?

2 METHOD

Literature search was carried out using online

databases (e.g., Science Direct), and maritime related

organisations (e.g., HELCOM, EMSA, IMO,

UNCTAD) webpages. Mainly shipping-related and

environmental impact related articles, reports or other

documents were used. Shipping related activities are

divided into three categories which are based on a

study of Jägerbrand [4]. In this study the shipping

activities th

at have environmental impact will be

analysed. In addition, the activities will be related

with their source of pollution (e.g., manoeuvring,

anchoring, loading/unloading cargo) and the impact

or consequences are analysed (e.g., emission to air

(CO

2, SOx, NOx) discharge to water (antifouling

paints, scrubber water, ballast water, bilge water,

black water), physical discharge (underwater noise)

etc).

3 RESULTS

As a result of this study, an overview of shipping

related activities is gathered and presented in table

form. The tables will give answers to questions of

what are the shipping activities that have an impact

on the environment and what kind of impact it is.

Based on a recent study [16], an extra table is

presented to give an overview of which shipping

activities with environmental impact are relevant in

the Estonian sea area. Furthermore, considering if the

assumed impact is high (red), medium (yellow) or

low (green), first evaluation is given (Table 1).

Table 1. Colour coding of assumed environmental impact of

shipping activities.

________________________________________________

Assumed impact Colour

________________________________________________

High

Medium

Low

________________________________________________

According to the Estonian Maritime Document

Exchange [17] there has been 11 000 - 12 000 port calls

annually in Estonian ports in 2017-2021 (Figure 2) and

statistically the vessel type with the highest number of

calls was predictably ferry vessels due to the intense

passenger transport between Tallinn-Helsinki (Figure

3). As Figure 3 is demonstrating, ferries are followed

975

by general purpose cargo vessels, chemical tankers,

roll on-roll off vessels and container vessels.

Shipping related activities are divided into three

categories which are based on a study of Jägerbrand

[4] - discharges to water, air emissions and physical

pollution. This division is used to gather knowledge

on what are the main pollution sources and mainly

negative impacts.

Figure 2. Port visits in Estonian ports in 2017-2021 [17].

Figure 3. Most common vessel types based on number of

port calls in Estonian ports between 2017-2021 [17].

Figure 4. Classification of the environmental impacts of

shipping on the aquatic environment into three main

categories of discharges to water, physical impact, and air

emissions [4].

3.1 Discharges to water

The main shipping related wastes that have direct

impact to the water are ballast water, oily bilge water,

propeller shaft lubricants, tank cleaning water,

scrubber discharge, liquid and dry bulk, marine litter,

food waste, black and grey water, cooling water and

antifouling paints (Table 2). Danish straits, the

southwestern part of the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of

Finland are under the greatest pressure from

pollutants spread by ships in the Baltic Sea [14]. In

order to avoid invasion of NIS the International

Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted in 2004 the

International Convention on the Control and

Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments,

i.e., the Ballast Water Management Convention that

entered into force in Estonia in 2018 [18]. According to

the convention, when a ship enters a new body of

water, ballast water taken from elsewhere must be

replaced with local seawater at a distance at least 200

nautical miles from the nearest land and in water at

least 200 metres in depth [18], [19]. Since there is no

sea area in the Baltic Sea that meets such conditions

(the width of the open part is about 300 km), a

gradual exchange of ballast water in the open sea and

deballasting of ballast water in ports is a realistic

measure here [19].

3.2 Air emissions

The main air emissions from vessels that are analysed

in this study are nitrogen, sulphur, particulate matter,

black carbon, greenhouse gases, volatile organic

compounds and gases from using refrigeration

systems (Table 3). The nitrogen contribution from

shipping activities in the Baltic Sea (both air and

water) has been estimated to make up to 1.25 -- 3.3%

of the total nitrogen input and about 0,3% of total

phosphorus input to the Baltic Sea [4], [28]. NOx in

ship exhaust gases worsen the nutrient pollution

problem of the Baltic Sea, also called eutrophication

[3] SOx is not as important pollutant for the Baltic Sea

marine environment compared to inland nature and

human health, but it is indirectly very relevant as

implementation of SOx regulation (“SECA”) is a

catalyst for using new greener technologies and

alternative fuels such as Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

that influence also NOx emissions [4]. Black carbon is

estimated to be responsible for 6,85% of the global

warming contribution from shipping activities in

2018, while CO

2 contributed 91,32% [8]

Table 2. Discharges to water.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

Nr Shipping related Source of the pollutants/pollution to the sea General environmental impact and/or consequence

waste

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

1 Ballast Water [2], Ballast water could be transferred between Spreading the NIS is ranked as one of the worst

[3], [8], [20] different marine regions by vessels that take threats to the marine environment by the IMO [3].

in ballast water upon cargo discharge and NIS that have an adverse effect on biological

empty their ballast tanks when cargo is diversity, socio-economic values, human health, or

loaded, since shipping is present in all sea ecosystem functioning are considered invasive alien

areas non-indigenous species (NIS) are species [4]. There were 132 NIS in the different

transferred between ports regardless of basins of the Baltic Sea in 2017 [21]

differences in environmental conditions [3]

2 Oily bilge water The amount might be dependent on the size Oil and its degradation products might have an

976

[3], [4], [8], [20] of the ship, oil could end up in the bilge impact on the whole ecosystem, starting from

water from condensation and leakages in damages on the DNA level up to changes in

the engine room [8] community structure [4]. For example, oil may

3 Propeller shaft Pollution ends up in the sea due to the change the community composition since species

lubricants and/or waste streams that are related to the with higher tolerance increase [4]. Coastal wetlands

stern tube oil [3], operations of propulsion and engine [3] are vulnerable to oil spills as they are low-oxygen

[4], [8], [20] environments with slow decomposition, for instance

4 Tank cleaning and The amount of pollution is related to the dilutions of 2.5 -- 5% bilge water or low

washing water number of tanks that must be cleaned and concentrations of diesel may significantly change the

(slop) [3], [4], [8] the size of loading capacity [8] marine environment [4]. Bilge water, lubrication of

propeller shaft bearings, or the illegal cleaning of

tanks could give more than 70% of the total shipping

related oil discharge [4]

5 Scrubber Pollution for the environment comes from In experiments with scrubber discharge there has

discharge [3], the low-pH water from exhaust gas scrubber been observation of increased mortality and reduced

[4], [20] systems [4] feeding in copepods [4]

6 Liquid bulk (HNS - Dry bulk, packed and liquid fertiliser Release of hazardous substances like hydrocarbons,

hazardous and cargoes that are carried on vessels could end heavy metals etc into aquatic environments may

noxious up in the sea during transportation, loading/ cause indirect ecological effects like including

substances) unloading, transhipment and cleaning of changes in behaviour, competition, and predator-

cargo holds [22] prey interactions that may have impact on the

general marine life [4]

7 Dry bulk [4], [22] Due to containing nitrogen and phosphorus, large

amount of dry bulk may smother vegetation or

induce algal blooms [4]

8 Marine Litter/solid Waste that is generated on vessels include, In addition to being an aesthetic problem, marine

waste (most for example, glass, tin, plastics, paper and litter also causes socioeconomic costs, threatens

commonly plastic, food waste, whereas food waste is also human health and safety and has impacts on marine

but also paper, separately categorised as garbage [4] organisms [2]. Consumption of tiny micro plastics

metal scrap) [4], is also a concern as it may end up in the food chain

[23] [2]. Furthermore, marine litter might end up

damaging and degrading habitats (e.g., in terms of

smothering) and might help the transfer of alien

species [2].

9 Garbage and Food waste might end up in the sea from When discharging food waste to the sea, it may

other waste (Food shops, restaurants etc, but also from cause an increased biological or chemical oxygen

waste/biowaste, transportation of livestock [8] demand as the organic matter is degraded in the

food oil) [3], [20] marine environment and its nutrient content

(Nitrogen discharge from food waste [20]) may also

increase eutrophication [3]

10 Black water Black water (sewage) comes from onboard An excess input of nutrients may cause

(sewage from toilets and the amount is dependent on the eutrophication in marine environments [4]

passenger ships) number of passengers on board, but also the

[2]–[4], [20] type of toilets, length of voyage [4], [8].

Sewage from medical facilities on board is

also considered black water [24]

11 Grey water [3], Grey water from vessels is non-sewage

[4], [20] wastewater that includes drainage from

showers, kitchens, laundry facilities and

galleys [4], [24]

12 Cooling water [3] Seawater is used in the vessels machinery There is a small potential for transport of non-

systems as a cooling media for heat indigenous species [26]. In addition there is a

exchangers, freshwater is used in a closed potential to cause thermal environmental effects

circuit to cool down the engine room once the cooling seawater is discharged and the

machinery [25] After the freshwater has discharged seawater might contain dissolved

cooled the machinery then it is further materials from the components of the seawater

cooled by the seawater in a sea-water cooling system [26]

cooler [25]

13 Non-indigenous International maritime transport has The translocation of NIS might cause changes in the

species (NIS) [4] resulted in the translocation of species trophic chain (e.g., new predators) or decrease in

attached to the hull [4] indigenous species populations due to competition

with NIS for space or food [8] Another impact could

be the introduction of new pathogens and parasites

that are dangerous for marine organisms in the area

and also for human health [8].

14 Biofouling and Different antifouling agents are used on Antifouling paints could be a major source of copper

antifouling paints the ship hull to prevent the accumulation to the marine environment and tributyltin (TBT) that

[3], [4], [20] of organisms [4] has been used in ship paints has found to cause

imposex, which is an endocrinal disturbance leading

to the development of male genitalia in female

marine gastropods [4]. Negative impacts by TBT

have also been reported for other marine organisms,

however, TBT was phased out of use from 1st of

January in 2008 by IMO [4], [27]

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Table 3. Air emissions.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

Nr Shipping related Source of the pollutants/pollution to the sea General environmental impact and/or consequence

waste

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

15 Nitrogen (NOx) The nitrogen is formed during fuel NOx emissions formed during fuel combustion are

[2], [4] combustion [4] known to cause acidification in freshwater systems

(also referred as “acid rain”) [4] . Furthermore,

through an increase in bioavailable nitrogen, NOx

also contributes to water eutrophication [4] . In

addition, NOx together with volatile organic

compounds (VOC) is a precursor for ground-level

(or “bad”) ozone (together with VOC) and particles

that are harmful for human health [4] .

16 Sulphur (SOx) Sulphur is generated when vessels are SOx emissions might cause acidification in

[2], [4] using marine fuels, but also by other freshwater systems (also known as “acid rain”) [4].

combustion machinery, for example oil-fired

boilers [4] .

17 Particulate matter Particular matter is released during fossil The organic compound accumulation might cause

(organic carbon) fuel burning or could be formed in reactions anoxia [4]

[2], [4] with SOx [4]

18 Black carbon If black carbon on snow or ice, it darkens

(Artic areas) [4] them and decreases their ability to reflect

sunlight, eventually leading to higher heat

absorption and melting, that is especially

relevant in the Arctic since this adds to

temperature rise in the Arctic that is already

much faster than anywhere else in the world [8]

19 Greenhouse gas Greenhouse gases are generated from Emission of GHG is linked to chemical changes like

(CO2, CH4 – vessels when the burning of fuel [4] ocean acidification that affects shell-formation of

methane) [2], [4] various calcifying species (e.g., reef-forming corals)

and has the fastest changes and largest impacts

observed in the polar and tropical regions [4]. In

addition, decreases in pH may be larger in the Baltic

Sea due to lower concentrations of buffering

dissolved inorganic carbon [4]

20 Volatile organic VOC are generated from handling crude oil The ingestion or inhalation of petroleum components

compounds (VOC) as cargo [4] may have a negative influence on the digestive,

[4] respiratory, and circulation systems [4]

21 Ozone-depleting The ODS emission from vessels comes The use of refrigerants on vessels contributes to the

substances (ODS) from the extensive use of halocarbons as anthropogenic impact on the ozone layer and due to

[4], [23] refrigerants [4] the rise in UVB radiation, as a consequence of ozone

layer depletion, there is a negative effect on aquatic

species and possibility of changes in aquatic

communities [4], [23]

22 Fluorinated The gases (most common are The global warming potential of 1kg of R-404A (one

greenhouse gases hydrofluorocarbons - HFCs) are usually of the refrigerant) being released into the atmosphere

(F-gases) [29] found on vessels in air-conditioning, is equivalent to significant 3922 kg CO2 [29]

refrigeration and inert gas drying systems,

but also in the production of insulation

foam and firefighting equipment [29]

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

3.3 Physical pollution

In the Estonian sea area, when it comes to accidents,

then attention should be paid to the potential risk of

pollution incidents to the Narva River Downstream

Conservation Area, which aims in particular to

protect fish and their habitats [30]. Regarding

groundings and sinkings then on average, more than

10 new wrecks are found in Estonian sea areas every

year, and a total of 594 wrecks lying on the seabed of

Estonia have been mapped in the database of the

Transport Agency - 490 of them have been found

during surveying work, the rest have been identified

either from aerial photographs or from previous sea

charts [31]. In the Gulf of Finland, anthropogenic

noise exceeds (5% of the time) the high natural noise

level in approximately half of the assessment area,

due to shipping lanes located in the middle of the gulf

[32]. Man-made underwater continuous sound occurs

in a large part of the Estonian sea area, and there is a

potential to have a long-term effect on marine animal

species whose activities necessary for life are near

shipping lines. At the same time, there is also a

sufficiently large sea area in which natural sound

levels dominate, and marine animals are not

significantly disturbed by ship noise [32]. The main

shipping related physical pollution is underwater

noise, but also artificial light, wildlife collisions, ship

groundings and accidents (Table 4).

4 DISCUSSION

4.1 Shipping related activities and their environmental

impact on Estonian sea area

In relation to the intensifying maritime traffic,

including small craft traffic related to leisure and

industrial offshore activities in the Baltic Sea and

especially in the Finnish Bay area, shipping related

activities that have environmental impact, become

under discussion of both public and private sector

bodies. It is important to develop and improve

appropriate decision support tools for assessing the

environmental effects of possible pollution caused by

shipping to mitigate the increasing environmental

risks.

978

Table 4. Physical pollution.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

Nr Shipping related Source of the pollutants/pollution General environmental impact and/or consequence

waste to the sea

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

23 Underwater noise Passenger ships, container and tanker The intensity of sound could be measured, but the

[2]–[4] propellers are the biggest noise polluters, impact of it to most of the animal species is not

in addition, the noise may be caused by completely understood[4]. A danger zone is the

the construction and operations of proximity of a source of noise at which the sound

offshore facilities, dredging, geological pressure is high enough to cause damage to the tissues

prospecting etc [4] of a living organism that causes a temporary increase in

hearing threshold, a permanent increase in hearing

threshold or more severe damage such as death of a

living organism [32]

24 Artificial light [4] Port operations, trucks, train, vessels that Since cruise tourism usually concentrates its activities

visit the port, increases when a lot of dark in remote environments then it might influence

time (little daylight) negatively sensitive nocturnal marine species with the

high levels of artificial light [4] Light pollution may

potentially cause a reduction of biodiversity or loss of

habitats and it may also impact species orientation,

reproduction and recruitment, predation, and

communication [4]. Furthermore, seabirds attracted to

the light from vessels or offshore platforms can become

disoriented, collide with structures, starve, become

dehydrated, or be taken by predators [4]. Artificial light

may also cause stress for nearby inhabitants

25 Wildlife collisions Vessel speed might be related to the The impacts of wildlife collisions might be injuries

[4], [23] probability of a collision taking place, but and fatal results [4]. But also disturbances that are

also to the severity of impact and besides causing alterations in behavioural traits, whereas

direct collisions, vessels may also interfere prolonged disturbances potentially alter survival

with marine fauna indirectly, by changing rates or population size [23]

their behaviour or habitat [4], [23]

26 Waves and Vessels create waves and currents when Vessels cause physical impacts in coastal areas and

currents [4] they are operating [4] watercourses and that might cause erosion &

resuspension [4]. One of the results of erosion is

shoreline vegetation that is continuously forced

further from the waterline, and the roots of trees and

bushes are exposed, which might cause their falling [4]

27 Ship grounding Vessels might end up on the seafloor Vessels that have grounded or sunk can cause a leakage

and sinking [4], because of severe weather, collisions or of substances and chemicals in the environment such

[33] war casualties [4] as, for example, TBT-based antifoulant, oil or fuels, in

addition, sinking vessels may also cause physical

damage of ecological habitats and are considered

unsafe for the environment [4], [33]

28 Accidents [8], [30] The pollution might come from lost cargo Accidents might cause oil spill, loss of cargo(containers)

or leakage of fuel, oil or other harmful [8]. The risk of pollution incidents and

substances the environmental impact are higher in sensitive

areas, including protected areas [30]

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

Current research contributes to the creation of

tools by pinpointing on the environmental impact of

shipping on the Estonian sea area. Without

harmonised and detailed statistics used throughout

different fields of research and decision making, there

cannot be a unified approach.

International maritime transport has a great

influence on Estonian sea areas, as Estonia is located

along the largest trade routes, including the trade

route to Russia’s St Petersburg and other Baltic Sea

ports in the Leningrad Oblast area, but also routes

serving Estonian needs and including transit through

Estonian ports. Therefore, developments in the

international shipping sector should be considered.

The table below (Table 5) indicates shipping

related activities and their assumed impact that is

relevant in the Estonian sea area. Operational

emissions and discharges from vessels are regulated

through international conventions, primarily the IMO

MARPOL, the Ballast Water Management Convention

and the Antifouling Systems Convention and in order

to move from assessment of discharges from one ship

to a certain area, it is necessary to combine the

discharge factors to the activity patterns [3]. Amount

of pollution might be dependent on several factors

like vessel size, speed and hull design, but also seabed

sediment grain size, water depths and under-keel

clearance [23]. For anchoring and mooring, waiting at

the port with the engine running and grounding the

amount of pollution might also be dependent on

vessel size, speed and hull design, but also seabed

sediment grain size, water depths and under-keel

clearance [23].

Bunkering of ships in Estonian waters is regulated

by Regulation No. 51 "Procedures for handling

dangerous and harmful substances at sea, Narva

River and Lake Peipsi” [30]. From August 2021,

bunkering is allowed in four anchorage areas in

Estonia [30]. Performing STS operations outside the

STS area may take place in justified exceptional cases

by agreement with the Estonian Police and Border

Guard Board [7]. The main reasons for accidents

caused by bunkering are: a) pipeline breakage, b) lack

or non-use of absorbent booms, and c) poor

communication [30]. When it comes to defence

operations or dumping of unwanted munitions, there

are special area requirements (navigation signs and

shooting ranges) and with war legacy there might be a

risk of hazardous substances [34]

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Table 5. Shipping related activities and their environmental impact relevant in Estonia.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

Subcluster Activity Activity more specifically Possible type of environmental Assumed environmental

impact impact

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

Shipping Cargo Propeller wash and vessel Discharges to water Cu and Zn from antifouling paints,

[35] transport, wake [23] (basically pyrene from scrubber discharge,

passenger moving vessels) bilge water, grey water [16]

transport, Air pollution Nitrogen (16% of Baltic Sea) [16]

cruise Physical pollution Underwater noise [16]

tourism STS Bunkering Discharges to water Cu

[34] Air pollution

Transfer of goods from one Discharges to water Cu

ship to another in STS areas [7] Air pollution

Anchoring and mooring [23] Discharges to water

Air pollution

Waiting at the port with the Discharges to water Cu and Zn from antifouling

engine running paints [16]

Air pollution

Grounding [23] Discharges to water

Physical pollution

Defence operations. Dumping of Discharges to water

unwanted munitions [34] Physical pollution

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

5 CONCLUSION

Currently, the generally accepted methodology for

determining the environmental impact of shipping

activities in the Estonian sea area is not yet available.

In general, there are three different categories of

pollution coming from operating vessels - discharges

to water (e.g., ballast water, oily bilge water, scrubber

discharge, black and grey water, antifouling paint

etc), air emissions (e.g., nitrogen, sulphur, black

carbon etc) and physical pollution (e.g., underwater

noise, wildlife collisions, ship grounding etc). All

those activities have impact on the surrounding

environment. For example, when discharging food

waste to the sea, it may increase eutrophication which

is considered one of the main issues in the Baltic Sea

region. Furthermore, NOx that is formed during fuel

combustion on vessels also contributes to water

eutrophication.

Based on previous studies carried out in the

Estonian sea area [16], [32], it was assumed in this

study that noise, as one of the shipping related

physical activities has the highest impact on the

environment, followed by Cu and Zn from antifouling

paints, which is discharge to water, pyrene from

scrubber discharge, bilge water and grey water and

nitrogen that occurs when fuel is burned.

Nevertheless, the estimations are inconclusive,

because the approximate quantities of emissions

released into the air or water in the Estonian sea area

are not available. It would be valuable to have a well-

developed methodology to find out numerical values

for water discharges, air emissions and physical

discharges for example like the ones that the Maritime

Working Group of HELCOM compiles for the whole

Baltic Sea. The first step towards that could be to

compare methodologies that are used in the nearby

countries, like Finland, Sweden and Latvia and see if

those would be suitable to use in the Estonian sea area

as well.

This overview is a starting point for further, more

detailed studies of what are the main shipping

activities that have the largest (negative) impact on

the (marine) environment in the Estonian sea area.

Furthermore, this study lacks the analysis of the

environmental impact of shipping related activities

that is caused by the fishing vessels and leisure craft

vessels that are not registered in AIS. Study also lacks

quantitative analysis of the environmental impact of

shipping due to the lack of developed methodology

on the Estonian sea area. These should be evaluated in

further studies.

FUNDING

This research was funded by the Ministry of Environment,

Estonian Research Council and Estonian Ministry of

Economic Affairs and Communications, RITA2/133.

“Preparation of a methodology for the assessment and

characterisation of the environmental impact of shipping in

the Estonian maritime area and preparation of a preliminary

assessment.” https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Projects/Display/

96f073dc-7b2c-4af8-a6fc-3a240d48910f and by the European

Commission, ER188, “ADRIENNE+”.

https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Projects/Display/41a33d7c-cfc1-

4700-a207-28dbd3808c3e

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank all the other participants of

the project “Preparation of a methodology for the

assessment and characterisation of the environmental

impact of shipping in the Estonian maritime area and

preparation of a preliminary assessment.” – Rivo Uiboupin,

Ilja Maljutenko, Urmas Raudsepp, Jonne Kotta, Robert Aps,

Urmas Lips, Natalja Kolesova, Madli Kopti and Siim Pärt

and participants of the project “Adrienne+”.

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