695
1 INTRODUCTION
Transportationofgoodsbysearepresentsoneofthe
most vital parts of global world trade. Over 50,000
merchant ships employed in international trade
transportallkindsofcargo,amountingtoabout90%
oftotalworldtrade[1].Moreover,withthehelpofthe
technical modernization of
ships and efficient
navigation equipment, maritime transport is more
efficientthanever.
A significant role in the maritime industry is
played by tankers, ships employed for the
transportationofoil,derivatives,andgas,whichmake
upabout30%ofthetotaltradebysea[2].Duetothe
nature of the
cargo that they transport, tankers are
associated with significant risk. During the
transportation and handling of cargo, all operations
must be performed without errors and harmful
impact on the environment and people. Despite the
highsophisticationofoiltankers,maritimeaccidents
with catastrophic consequences still occur since a
primary cause
is often human error. According to
availabledata,humanerrorasthemainfactorplayed
a role in as many as 30‐50% of marine accidents
relatedtooilspillsandseapollution[3].
Acompetentandeducatedcrewisessentialforthe
safe and efficient management of the ships.
International
Maritime Organization ( IMO)
recognized the importance of seafarersʹ education,
and in 1978 The International Convention on
Standards of Training, Certification and
Watchkeeping for Seafarers was issued. However, it
wasrealizedthattheconventionwasnotachievingits
purpose due to constant changes in required
Current Challenges in Professional Education and
Training of Seafarers at Management Levels on Oil
Tankers
V.Pavić
1
,S.TominacCoslovich
2
,N.Kostović
1
&I.Mišlov
1
1
UniversityofZadar,Zadar,Croatia
2
UniversityofRijeka,Rijeka,Croatia
ABSTRACT:Maritimeeducationandtraining(MET)areunderconstantpressurefromthemaritimeindustry,
characterizedbyextremelyrapiddevelopment.Duetothehighriskinthetransportandhandlingofcrudeoil,
seafarers employed on oil tankers are required to have skills and competencies well
above the minimum
educationstandardssetbytheInternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO)andtheInternationalConventionon
StandardsofTraining,CertificationandWatchkeeping(STCW).Therefore,tankercompaniesshouldprovide
additional training for their employees to ensure the fundamental goals of zero‐accident rates and reduce
humanerrortoaminimum.This
especiallyappliestoseafarersatthemanagementlevel,whomusthavethe
competenceandknowledgetooperateoil tankersat the highestprofessionallevel.Thispaper examinesthe
currentchallengesineducationandtherequiredcompetenciesofseafarersatmanagementlevelsconcerning
the rapid growth and development of the tanker
industry. In addition, some shortcomings regarding the
currentformofeducationandtraininghavebeenconsidered,andrecommendationsforthefutureupgradeof
theeducationandtrainingsystemforseafarersatthemanagementlevelareprovided.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 17
Number 3
September 2023
DOI:10.12716/1001.17.03.21
696
professional standards, and in 1995 the STCW
conventionunderwentitsfirstsignificantchange.The
second major amendment to the STCW Convention
occurred in 2010 and was popularly called the
ʺManilla Amendmentsʺ. Along with numerous
changesintheconventionʹstext,thereisanessential
change with an emphasis
on developing practical
skills and competencies of crew members and
introducing new and modern training methods for
seafarers, such as simulators, distance learning, and
onlinelearning.
The central role of Maritime Education and
Training (MET) is to anticipate growing challenges
and provide the necessary answers to meet the
expectationsofthe
futurecrewandofficersonships.
TheMEThasa crucialroleinpreparingseafarersto
safely and effectively respond to the operational
demandsofshipmanagement.Awell‐designedMET
program must have a properly balanced curriculum
with the necessary theoretical and practical
knowledgeineducationprograms [4].Students
who
complete undergraduate/graduate studies in the
maritime field should be sufficiently educated and
trainedtoperformtasksat theoperational leveland
achievethehighestqualificationsatthemanagement
levelwithfurtherupgradingintheircareers.
TheIMOhasrecognizedthehighriskinvolvedin
transporting oil by sea and set
standards through
IMO model courses regarding seafarersʹ education
and professional training on oil tankers. In order to
ensure the highest level of safety on tankers, tanker
companies should provide an additional training
programfortheircrewandofficers[5].Thereisahigh
demandforthehighlyqualifiedcrew,especially
those
atthemanagementlevel,whomustkeepupwiththe
technical development of the industry and
continuouslyimprovetheirskills.
Shipping companies are also responsible for
implementing the STCW convention so that all
seafarers have the appropriate certificates for the
position on the ship they are employed in. The
requirements
of the STCW convention are aligned
withtheISMcode(InternationalSafetyManagement
Code), and all crew members must be thoroughly
familiar with the companyʹs policy and procedures
and fully competent and qualified to perform their
dutiessafelyandefficiently.
Shipping has evolved to the level of a highly
qualifiedfield,andtodayʹsseafarersneedspecialized
types of knowledge and skills to operate ships of
various sizes and types successfully. This especially
appliestocrewmembersonthetankerfleet,whichis
particularly exposed due to potential environmental
risksfortheeconomyincoastalareas.
This paperʹs research
subject is assessing the
current level of professional training and possible
upgrades in the competencies and skills of the
highest‐ranking officers on oil tankers. It is evident
that the maritime industry must find specific
corrective actions and procedures that will lead to
decreased number of marine accidents connected to
humanerror.
2 SAFETYONOILTANKERSINCORRELATION
WITHTHEEDUCATIONLEVELAND
PROFESSIONALTRAININGOFSEAMEN
Accidental oil spills at sea can have a catastrophic
effect oncoastal areas and marine ecosystems. Also,
this can lead to significant consequences in other
branches, such as tourism, aquaculture, and fishing.
The
internationaltransportof crudeoilis constantly
increasing, but the number of incidents with
accidentalspillsintothe seahas adownwardtrend.
Currently, according to the statistics of the ITOPF
(International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation),
99.99% of the total amount of loaded crude oil is
safelytransportedbysea,
aspresentedinFigure1.[6].
Figure1. Decline in number of tanker spills vs. growth in
crude and other tanker trade loaded, 1970‐2021 (source:
ITOPFstatistics2022)
The most frequent causes of tanker spills are
allisions/collisionsandgroundings,withtheemphasis
on the collision category that has had a constantly
growingtendencysince1970.IntheavailableITOPF
statistics, getting factors contributing to marine
causalities on tankers is impossible. In the Annual
OverviewofMarineCasualtiesandIncidents
for2022
issued by the European Maritime Safety Agency
(EMSA), human action is the leading accident event
type, with 59.6% of the total for the various ship
types. Concerning the focus area of human actions,
45.1%isrelatedtothetraining,skills,andexperience
oftheshipʹscrew.[7].
2.1 Requirededucationandtrainingforseafarersatthe
managementlevelonoiltankers
One of the key elements for maintaining a safe
shipping industry and preserving the marine
environment lies in the fact that all seafarers in the
world should possess high competence and
knowledgeforthedutiestheyperform
onboard.This
particularly applies to officers at the management
level on oil tankers, where the IMO and the STCW
havesethighstandards.
AccordingtoresearchdatafromGilbertMaturan,
global seafarer training manager at Teekay Tanker
Company [8], 60% of learning takes place on board
through hands‐on
experience, 30% of learning takes
place through interaction with colleagues through
mentoring and coaching, and only 10% comes from
formallearningandshortcoursesattheend.
697
With a completed undergraduate or graduate
degree in maritime university (nautical or marine
engineering),theSTCWConventionhassetminimum
standardsforofficersandcrewsailingonoiltankers.
TheIMOhasdevelopedaseriesofmandatorycourses
to improve seafarersʹ education in the rapidly
growingmaritimeindustry.IMO
modelcourseshave
very detailed lesson plans with clear training
outcomes and competencies that must be achieved
aftercompletingthecourse.
According to the requirements of the oil tanker
industry,inadditiontoIMOModelcourses,thereare
numerousmandatoryandrecommendedcoursesthat
seafarersatthemanagementlevelonoil
tankersmust
possessorarestronglyrecommendedtopossess.
In addition to all of the above, seafarers at the
management level on oil tankers are required, in
accordancewith theirduties on board, to attend the
so‐calledCBTtraining(ComputerBasedTraining)by
means of computer programs and e‐
learning. It is
commonfortankercompaniestosetaTrainingmatrix
foreachrankonboardsothateveryindividualcrew
member can access required courses via computers
andaspeciallydesignedmarinedevelopedsystem.A
significant advantage of CBT training is that the
necessarytrainingcanbedoneduring
astayonboard
andmostlyduringregularworkinghours,soitisnot
necessarytoattendthesametrainingduringvacation
periodsathome.
Forofficersatthemanagementlevelandpotential
junior officers, some oil tanker companies design
uniqueʺin‐houseʺ courses and training. They are
primarily designed
to inform the highest‐ranking
officers (Captain, Chief Engineer, Chief Officer, and
2ndEngineer)about thelatestchanges inthetanker
industry. Some additional training sometimes refers
tounexpectedcircumstances,suchaspiracy,whereit
isnecessarytotrainthecrewveryquickly.
Oil tanker companies must also comply with the
highsafetystandardssetbyOCIMF(OilCompanies
InternationalMarineForum). OCIMFintroducedthe
SIRE program (Ship Inspection Report) to address
concerns about sub‐standard shipping. [9]. Objective
reviewsbasedontheSIREprogramhavecontributed
to reducing incidents and improving operational
standards.TransitionstothenewSIRE2.0model
are
currently being carried out. This is astep change in
the inspection process, changing the focus from the
managementprocessestohumanfactors.Alongwith
theSIREprogram,asignificantroleisplayedbythe
Tanker Management Self‐Assessment Program‐
TMSA.ThemainadvantagesofTMSAareraisingthe
standards
ofsafetymanagementsystemsontankers,
whereparticular emphasisis placednot only onthe
training and education of seafarers who sail on oil
tankersbutalsoonemployeesinoffices.
2.2 SurveyofIMOModelcoursescurriculaandseafarers’
trainingpolicyonoiltankercompanies
Forthepurposeof
thispaper,fourtankercompanies
were requested to share all relevant documentation
regarding seafarersʹ education policy, including the
following: Crew Manual, Officerʹs Training Policy,
MinimumSTCWandNational Requirementsforthe
Officers, Additional Training as per rank and
Certification Matrix for Officers. Comparing the
educationandtrainingpoliciesamongthe
fourtanker
companies shows a remarkable similarity in the
requirementsforcertainranksservingonoiltankers.
Themainreasonistheglobalinfluenceofthetanker
industry and the strict rules set primarily by the
OCIMF. Due to the numerous rigorous annual
inspections of each tanker and open access
to the
databases ofall tankers worldwide, a high standard
hasbeencreatedthateverytankerontheoilmarket
mustachieve.Inordertoachievethosegoals,awell‐
educatedandhighly‐trainedcrewisrequired.
Although the STCW convention emphasizes the
obligation and responsibility of the highest‐ranking
officers
onoiltankers,thementoringandteachingof
junior officers are not particularly highlighted and
elaborated in detail in the training policies of the
observedcompanies.Itisevidentthatmentorshipand
directtraining onboard represent the bestmeans of
educating junior officers. Building high individual
competencies of seafarers
requires many years of
experience, and a complex system of continuous
mentoring work is essential. This issue has been
partiallysolvedwiththeʺTraintheTrainerʺcoursefor
the highest‐ranking officers, where they have been
trainedtoteachyoungerandinexperiencedofficers.
Inordertoreducehumanerrorstoa
minimumin
theprocessofmanagingthevessel,thereareseveral
additional courses that the officers must complete
(Bridge and Engine Team Management, Bridge and
Engine Resource Team Management, Shipboard
Hazards Simulation & Situational Awareness
Training). The fundamental goal of the additional
courseswithanemphasisonreducinghumanerrors
is to manage the ship with a zero‐incident goal.
However,deeperinsightintotheteachingsyllabusof
thelatesteditionsoftheIMOmodelcoursesrelatedto
reducinghumanerrorsshowsthatsomecourseshave
not been updated despite the rapid development of
technologyinthetankerindustry[10].Also,
thereis
currently no IMO model course for the highest‐
ranking officers focusing on reducing human errors
andteachingtop‐rank officersthespecial techniques
andskillsformanagingthevesselsafely.
The use of ship/cargo simulators is strongly
emphasized in the education policies of observed
tanker companies. The simulation
environment
provides numerous benefits and leads to the
immediateapplicationofknowledgeandinsightinto
current errors and the performance of corrective
actions.Usingthesimulatoreliminatestheproblemof
traditionallearningandachievesmuchbetterlearning
outcomes.Inordertomaintainahighlytrainedcrew,
top‐rankofficersonoil
tankersmustbetrainedinthe
following:
fullyintegratednavigationalbridgesimulator
fullyintegratedengineroomsimulator
cargohandlingsimulator
hydraulicssimulator
PolarIcenavigationsimulator
ECDISsimulator
GMDSSsimulator
A detailed analysis of the available education
policiesofobservedtankercompaniesand
theSTCW
curricula showed that there is no special additional
698
training in the use of advanced information
technology and automation. Despite general
digitization and increasing utilization of electronic
equipment on newbuildings, seafarers have no
additionaltrainingin managing highly sophisticated
automatedsystems.
The current trend of introducing multinational
crews on oil tankers increases the need for effective
communication in English.
Inadequate
communicationbetweentheofficersandthecrewor
between the ship and the shore can endanger the
shipʹssafety,crew,and environment.Withinregular
and routine shipboard operations, the current
language barrier may not immediately create a
problem as there is time to repeat or explain it
differently.
However,ifthecrewcannotcommunicate
adequately and accurately in emergency situations,
thisposesa significantchallengetothesafetyof the
ship. By studying the available crew manuals of oil
companies, it becomes apparent that all crew
members are required to have good speaking and
writingskillsinEnglishaccording
totheIMOModel
Course3.17ʺMaritimeEnglishʺ.However,neitherthe
oil companies nor the IMO/STCW noticed the
necessity for additional and advanced education in
theMaritimeEnglishlanguage.
Industrialandorganizationalpsychologyplaysan
increasinglyimportantroleinthemaritimeindustry.
Although it is primarily used in the
recruitment
process when hiring cadets and junior officers, it is
alsoemployedintheofficerpromotionprocess,where
aspecificsetofskillsrequiredfortheappropriaterole
on board is determined. During the detailed
examination of the available oil tanker company
education policies and STCW curricula, a fully
developedpsychometric
assessmentofthecapabilities
of the highest rank officers on oil tankers was not
observed. Only a minor part concerned with
psychometricassessmentwasfoundintheadditional
courses related to the management of human
resources on the ship, teamwork, and the initial
recruitment of cadets. Through interviewing people
employed
in the training centers in Croatia, it was
notedthatcurrently,nodetailedteachingsyllabusnor
the necessary human resources (psychologists or
organizationsspecializedinthisarea)existtoperform
a psychometric assessment of participants during
real‐scenariopracticeonshipsimulators.
2.3 Surveyresultsamongthemanagementlevelofficers
serving
onoiltankers
AccordingtoasurveyofcurriculaoftheIMOModel
courses and seafarersʹ training policy on oil tanker
companiesandthe possibledeficienciesidentifiedin
theprocess,ashortsurveywasalsoconductedamong
seafarers at the management level encompassing
Masters, Chief Officers, Chief Engineers, and First
Engineers.Inaddition,seafarersfromdifferenttanker
companies participated in the survey. The survey
consistedof5questions,andallofthemwererelated
to the topic of research presented in this paper.
Altogether40activehighest‐rankofficersparticipated
intheresearch.
In the first question, survey participants were
asked
about the implementation of learning and
mentoring of younger and less experienced officers.
31% of the survey participants reported that the
mentorteachingprocesswasfullyexecuted,andthe
restoftheanswersreferredtothepartialapplication
oftheteachingprocessonboardornoapplicationat
all.
Figure2. Program of mentoring junior officers on board
(source:Author’sownwork)
In question 2, survey participants were asked to
evaluate general knowledge and proper
communicationintheEnglishlanguageonboardtheir
vessels during navigation and communication with
other vessels and cargo operations at oil terminals.
Communicationin English wasevaluatedby 38%of
the participants as excellent, while 50% of them
reported
itasverygood.
Figure3. Assessment of communication in English in the
maritimeindustry(source:Author’sownwork)
Consideringthegrowingtrendofdigitizationand
automationinthetankerindustry,surveyparticipants
wereaskedtoratetheirknowledgeofmanaginghigh‐
tech and automated systems on board. 35% of the
participantsratedtheir knowledge as goodand29%
as very good. However, only 30% stated that their
knowledge of
managing high‐tech systems was
excellent.
Inthe4thquestionofthesurvey,theparticipants
were asked about implementing psychometric
assessmentofseafarersduringtheextensivepractice
onasimulatororinthefinalprocessofpromotionto
the highest rank. Only 19% of participants have
experienceattendingthatkind
ofadditionaltraining.
699
Figure4.Assessmentofknowledgeinmanagingadvanced
digitalandautomatedsystemsonboardoiltankers(source:
Author’sownwork)
Figure5. The presence of psychometric assessment in the
training and promotion process of seafarers at the
management level on oil tankers (source: Author’s own
work)
Inthelastquestionofthesurvey,participantswere
asked to select all relevant categories that can
contribute to reducing human errors on board,
complying with the company goal of zero accident
rate. The participants indicated, with a total of 43%
(24% referring to competence and skills and 19% to
additional
training),thatimprovingthecompetencies
andtrainingofseafarersatthemanagementlevelcan
significantlyreducehumanerrorsleadingtoaccidents
onoiltankers.
Figure6.Impactonthereductionofhumanerrorsonboard
(source:Author’sownwork)
3 ANALYSISANDINTERPRETATIONOFTHE
SURVEY
Theprocessofeducationandprofessionaltrainingof
seafarers at the management level on oil tankers is
still a very complex issue. Comparing the current
educationpoliciesoftheobservedtankercompanies,
a significant similarity and unification of the
requirementsbasedontheminimum
requirementsof
theSTCWConventionandtheIMOcanbeidentified.
However,thereareapparentdivergencesintheform
of essential additional education of the highest‐
ranking officers on board oil tankers. Additional
education and professional training of seafarers are
the basis of the outlined policy of creating a zero‐
accident rate and reducing human errors to a
minimum.However,despitethestatisticsofmaritime
accidentsshowingthathumanerrorisstilltheleading
cause, there is currently no specific training for
seafarersin thetanker industrythatonlyfocuses on
reducinghumanerrorinvarioussituations.Inorder
to make
it happen, in maritime training centers, it
wouldbenecessaryto haveexpertsinhumanfactor
impactwhowouldusetheirteachingtechniquesand
skillstoworkinatargetedwaytoreducethenatural
limitationsofthehumanmind.
The analysis of oil tanker companiesʹ education
policiesandthe
surveyresultsshowthatthepractical
learning or mentoring process of junior officers on
board has roomfor furtherimprovement. It is quite
clear that the mentoring process cannot be fully
realizedduetotheimpactofthehighworkloadofthe
shipʹs personnel and the increasing economic
demands in
the oil tanker industry. The skill of
mentoring, i.e., training other officers on board, is
actually the simplest way to spread the necessary
knowledgeandexperience.Companiesshouldhavea
carefully defined learning and developing plan for
each officerʹs rank with specific practical training
tasksduringtheirstayon
boardandaclearprocedure
fortrainingtheirhighest‐rankofficersinsoftteaching
skillsthattheywouldlaterapplyinmentoringjunior
officers. Investment in junior officersʹ professional
educationalwayshaslong‐termpositiveimplications.
Through the research, it was determined that all
the observed companies invest much effort in
educating their seafarers through various types of
simulators. Real events can be accurately illustrated
throughsimulations,whichisaveryeffectivewayto
improve the skills and competencies of participants.
Through different realistic and authentic scenarios
adaptedtothedutiesperformedbyofficersonboard,
theeffectofteachingcan
beevaluatedandcompared
withthestandardofthetankerindustry.Thus,future
training can be adjusted according to the perceived
shortcomings.Inaddition,apsychometricassessment
by an expert, which would be performed
simultaneously with the practice on the simulator,
wouldhelpalot.Only19%ofthesurveyparticipants
arefamiliarwiththisprocess,whichshouldbemore
widelyappliedintheeducationofseafarers.
Accordingtothedatafromthesurvey,43%ofthe
participants stated the importance of seafarersʹ
educationandprofessionaltraininginthecontextof
reducinghumanerrorsandaccidentsatsea.Although
itis
notrelevanttothispaper,itisinterestingtonote
700
that 33% of the participants consider the reduced
workload and the increase in the number of crew
membersonboardaneffectiveresponsetoreducing
humanerrorsandaccidentsatsea.
AnalyzingITOPFʹsstatisticsofmaritimeaccidents
onoiltankers,itisclearlyvisiblethatincidentsoccur
mainly during
the shipʹs navigation, with the two
predominant categories being collisions and ship
strandings. Furthermore, according to available
researchdatafromtheNTSB(NationalTransportation
SafetyBoard)[11],oneofthemostcommoncausesof
ship collisions and groundings is inadequate
communication and improper use of automation on
board vessels.
Comparing these data with the data
fromthesurvey,itcanbeseenthattheknowledgeof
theEnglishlanguageandtheuseofdigital/automated
systemsisata satisfactorylevel, butitcanbe noted
thatthere isroomfor improvementatthe advanced
level. Therefore, it is necessary to
develop new
curricula in the domain of IMO Model courses
regarding the level of English language knowledge
andtheproperuseofadvanceddigitaltechnologyon
ships.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Theresearch on seafarersʹeducationandtrainingon
oil tankers at management levels clearly showed its
remarkable complexity and challenges. The
statistics
of maritime accidents involving oil tankers continue
to indicate that human error is the most common
cause. Even the slightest individual human error
usually leads to other errors and, finally, to an
incident.Asasolution,themaritimeindustryshould
set clear procedures and try to reduce the poor
situational
assessmentsanddecisionsthatmostoften
cause ship accidents. Effective education and a
carefully developed strategy of additional
professional training is an effective way to achieve
thisgoal.
Competences acquired by improving practical
skillsduringthestayonboardshouldbeprioritized.
This can be achieved by revising the learning
programsregulatedbytheSTCWConventionandthe
IMOandbuildingdetailedandindividuallyadapted
formsoflearningduringseafarersʹstayonboard. In
addition,thestandardizationofthementoringprocess
and the active involvement of the most experienced
personnelonboard,includingemployeesworkingin
offices, would undoubtedly contribute to
increasing
thelevelofknowledgeandeducationamongofficers.
Asanoption,tankercompanieswithlargerfleetsmay
adopt some vessels asʺCadet shipsʺ with dedicated
training senior officers on board focused only on
learninganddevelopmentprograms.Inaddition,itis
necessary to continuously provide officers at
management levels
with better additional education
intheapplicationofadvanceddigitaltechnologyand
automation, as well as an advanced level of
knowledgeoftheEnglishlanguage.
Traditionally, MET institutions meet the
requirementsof STCWregulationswhen developing
curricula,focusingondeliveringIMOmodelcourses.
However,theoperationalandtechnologicalprogress
rate in
maritime operations continues to accelerate.
Therapidchangeintechnology,alongwiththehigh
safety criteria for all the participants in the tanker
business,requireconstantimprovementineducating
seafarers at management levels. Therefore,
educational and training institutions and tanker
companies should prioritize additional training of
seafarersandcreatelong‐
termplansandstrategiesto
ensure a sufficiently qualified and educated
workforce for the future, especially at the
management level. The training and education of
seafarersmustbedevelopedinparalleltothecurrent
impactofthefourthindustrialrevolution.Theroleof
MET institutions is critical in implementing new
technologies
and fulfilling new expectations of the
maritimeindustry.
Environmental protectionand safety levels onoil
tankers can only be improved through targeted
education and training of seafarers. Psychometric
assessment, while performing comprehensive and
realisticsimulation scenarios, can beusedas agreat
tooltopotentiallyidentifysomeonewhoisʺlikelyʺ
or
ʺmayʺ contribute to a potential incident or marine
casualty. Through targeted training and micro‐
learninginvolvingofficersatthemanagementlevel,it
would be possible to build unique features and
capabilitiestooperateoiltankervesselswithazero‐
incidentrate.
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