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1
INTRODUCTION
Drones, also known as unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs),havebecomeubiquitousinrecentyearsdue
to their various applications, including aerial
photography, surveying, and delivery services.
However, drones can also be used for nefarious
purposes, including espionage, terrorism, and
smuggling. The number of drones is growing very
fast, and their
commercial use is becoming more
widespread, attracting a high level of interest from
investors,industry,business,governmentinstitutions,
the military, agencies, special services, and private
individuals.Knowledgeandpracticeindesigningand
manufacturing drones have become more accessible.
Alotofinstitutionsandindividualsaredesigningand
usingtheirdrones.
The components for constructing
simplemicro‐classdronesareavailableinthemarket
withoutlegalrestrictions.Allofthesefactorsprevent
using commercially available drones and self‐made
dronesformilitary,terrorist,orunintentionalusethat
violates the law. The development of anti‐drone
systems has become the need of the
hour. The
increasing number of incidents or acts of security
Anti-drone Sensors, Effectors, and Systems – A Concise
Overview
D.Zmysłowski,P.Skokowski&J.M.Kelner
M
ilitaryUniversityofTechnology,Warsaw,Poland
ABSTRACT:Thedynamicdevelopmentofmicroelectronicsandwirelesscommunicationattheturnofthe20th
and 21st centuries contributed to the increase in the availability and popularity of all kinds of unmanned
platforms,air,land,surface,andunderwater.Inthecaseofunmannedaerialvehicles
(UAVs),alsopopularly
knownasdrones,thesignificant(crucial)advantagesarehighfreedomofmotion(i.e.,theabilitytomovein
threeplanes)andthepossibilityofusingitpracticallyanywhere(asopposedtowaterplatforms).Thesefactors
influenced the dynamic development of this market sector and the high availability
of various models and
equipment. UAVs are being used in many sectors and services, both for civil and military purposes.
Widespreadavailability,lowcost,andeaseofusealsofavorthepossibilityofusingcivilianUAVsforcriminal,
smuggling,terrorist,ormilitarypurposes.Recentarmedconflicts,e.g.,inNagorno‐Karabakhor
Ukraine,and
thesituationontheeasternPolish‐Belarusianborderclearlyshowthis.Allcountriesrecognizethepotentialand
threat posed by the development of unmanned platforms.Therefore, for several years, special attention has
beenpaidtoanalysesandresearchinsensors,effectors,andanti‐dronesystems.Itisworth
emphasizingthat
someeffectors(e.g.,jammersorspoofers)maysignificantlyaffectthenavigationprocessofneighboringobjects
that use global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs). On the other hand, the use of anti‐drone systems is
important,especiallyinthecontextofprotectinginstitutionsandfacilitiesofcompanies,stateadministration
(i.a.,embassies,
consulates),army,strategicimportanceobjects(e.g.,relatedtoenergy,chemicalindustry),or
protection of mass events. In this paper, we present an overview of solutions available on the market and
developmentdirectionsinthefieldofanti‐dronetechnology.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 17
Number 2
June 2023
DOI:10.12716/1001.17.02.23
456
breachesoreven attacksusingdroneshasledtothe
emergence of increasingly sophisticated drone
detectionandcountermeasureequipment. Therefore,
itisnecessarytohaveanti‐dronesystemsinplaceto
detect and neutralize these threats. Anti‐drone
systems called also as counter unmanned aerial
systems (C‐UASs), both stationary
and mobile, have
alsostartedtobebuiltandoffered.
The dynamic growth of the C‐UAS sector is
evidenced also by the ongoing research and
development in this area. Results of searching for
worksrelatedtothekeyword‘anti‐drone’intheIEEE
Xplore international technical publications database
[1],
thedatabase provides 45 works (as of 10 March
2023), including one book, two journal articles, six
scientific journal articles, and 36 conference papers.
Alltheseworksarefromtheperiod2017–2022.
Oneoftheprimarymethodsofdetectingdronesis
usingsensors.Thereareseveraltypesofsensorsthat
can
be used for this purpose, including acoustic
sensors, radar systems, and optical sensors. Once a
dronehasbeendetected,itisnecessarytoneutralize
thethreat.Thereareseveraltypesofeffectorsthatcan
beusedforthispurpose,includingjammingsystems,
directedenergyweapons,andnets.
Thispaperpresents
thegeneralconceptofC‐UAS,
its functionalities, and main elements. This class of
systemsstartedtobemoreimportantthesedays.We
decided to make a high‐level functional overview
which can be a kind of guidance around anti‐drone
systems and their elements. We intended to
characterize the topic
as simply as possible, to be a
quickstartguideforpeoplenotwell‐orientedinthis
area of knowledge. We believe it will help them in
further personal investigations. Section 2 presents
reasons for designing, deploying, and using drone
countermeasures. We considered constructing and
functional aspects of existing and
future drones as
platformsthatcouldbepotentialthreatstopeopleand
states, especially for critical infrastructure. How
effective could be a concrete C‐UAS depends on its
sensors and effectors. Section 3 describes the most
often implemented cost‐ and target‐effective sensors
as acoustic radio frequency (RF), radar, and optical
sensors.Section4shows anti‐droneeffectors suchas
jammingsystems,directedenergyweapons,andnets.
InSection5,bothfixedandmobilesystemshavebeen
described.Wealsopresentedselectedvendorsofanti‐
UAS.Thepaperisfinishedwiththeconclusions.
2
FUNCTIONALCONCEPTOFANTI‐DRONE
SYSTEM
Modern drones are unmanned flying objects, which
aremechanicaldeviceswith:
drive based on engines: electric, combustion
(pistonorturbine)oroperatinginhybridsystems;
avionics providing control and flight control,
which are electromechanical and electronic
systems;
navigationdevicesandsystems,mainlygyroscopic
–inertial()andelectronic–satellite,i.e.,basedon
globalnavigationsatellitesystem(GNSS),
electronic devices and radio communication
systems,providingsupportforremotecontroland
flightcontrol as well as transferring ofdata from
sensorsandcontrolofeffectors;
mainlyelectronicsensors:
for multispectral imaging (visible range,
thermal range, forward looking infrared
(FLIR)),
forradio‐electronicsurveillance,
others;
effectorsforaffectingobjects:
RFjammersandspoofers‐electronicdevices,
explosives‐bombsandguidedmissiles,
others.
The principle of operation, architecture, and
procedures of using anti‐drone devices and systems
are closely related to the functions, operational use,
and technical parameters of modern drones. To
effectively counteract thepotentially harmful impact
of drones, the anti‐drone system should identify
drones, classify them, assess their activity, and
countermeasurethemiftheyhavebeenidentifiedasa
threattotheprotectedfacility. Theimportantroleof
unambiguous identification and classification of
objects observed by the anti‐UAS system should be
considered.Practiceshowsthatmeredetectionofan
object is insufficient because the radar that detects
dronescan
alsorecognizeotherflyingobjectsasbirds.
In addition, own flying objects such as planes and
drones can move in the protected space. It makes
identification and classification of the elementary
functionsofmodernC‐UASdevices.
Theroleofthesefunctionswillgrowinthefuture,
mainlytoprotectcritical
infrastructureanditsmobile
elements (e.g., oil terminals, gas terminals, tankers,
gas carriers, etc.). The technology that classifies
drones will usually be able to separate them from
other objects – such as planes, trains, and cars. The
next step is to identify the classified objects. Some
devicescanassessa
specificdronemodelandidentify
theradioemissionsignatureoftheUAV (i.e.,digital
fingerprint)oritscontrolsorcontrollers.
TheelementarycriterionforevaluatingtheC‐UAS
system is the effectiveness of protection against
dronesprovidedtoagivenfacility.Thesystemmust
be appropriate from the viewpoint of the
characteristicsoftheprotectedfacility(location,size,
technological processes, functions performed, and
activitiesperformed).
Anti‐drone devices and systems are being
constructed to eliminate threats resulting from the
impact of drones on protected facilities. After
detecting and identifying a drone as a potentially
dangerous object, their operation should enable its
disposal by eliminating it (physical destruction) or
preventing its destructive impact on the protected
location (turning around, changing the flight
parameterssothatitisimpossibletoreachthetarget).
It means that C‐UAS devices and systems affect the
droningengineandalldevicesandsystems,bothon‐
boardand
sensorsandeffectors.Itleadstotakinginto
account in the design, implementation, and
operational use of anti‐drone systems many aspects
related to drones as risk factors for the protected
objects,thetechnology oftheir production, tacticsof
their use, but also the development trends of the
information and
communication technologies (ICT),
aerospace, and breakthrough technologies, because
457
they are chosen for the construction and operation
supportofdrones.
Aholistic,multi‐facetedapproachalsorequiresthe
very selection of technically effective solutions for
anti‐UAS devices and systems, considering the
followingissues[2,3]:
the design of broadband radio detectors and
direction finders, covering the droneʹs
communicationandnavigationbands,
development and use of operationally effective
hemispheric radars, operating in X and S bands
andusingthemicro‐Dopplereffecttoidentifyand
distinguishdronesfromotherobjects(birds),high‐
resolution, multi‐spectral cameras (visible range,
thermalrange,FLIR)
highly effective & sensitive acoustic microphones
andanalyzersforaudioidentificationofdrones,
artificial intelligence(AI) algorithms to support
identificationprocesses,classification,
a creation of situational imagery to facilitate the
handlingofhazardoussituations,
customized system interface‐customized human
machineinterface(HMI),
highly performative effectors usage: RF jammers
and spoofers, laser systems, high power energy
(HPE) systems [4–6], C‐UAS nets, anti‐aircraft
weaponscapableoffightingdrones,etc.
Thefunctionalityconceptofthemodernanti‐drone
systemispresentedinFigure1.
Figure1. Functional concept of anti‐drone system (source:
[7,8]).
3 ANTI‐DRONESENSORS
3.1
Acousticsensors
Acousticsensorsusemicrophonestodetectthesound
ofdrones.Thesoundofadroneʹspropellersisdistinct
and can be used to detect its presence. Acoustic
sensors effectively detect drones at close range, but
their effectiveness diminishes as the drone moves
further away. Figure 2 depicts exemplary
precision
acousticdetectionsystem.
3.2
RFsensorsanddirectionfinders
RF sensors and direction finders are critical sensors
usedinC‐UAStodetectandlocatedrones.RFsensors
detecttheelectromagneticsignalsemittedbydrones,
while direction finders provide the direction of the
droneʹssource.Together,thesesensorsenableC‐UAS
systems to quickly
identify and locate drones,
allowingoperatorstotakenecessarycountermeasures
to mitigate potential threats. With the increasing
proliferation of drones, RF sensors, and direction
finders are becoming more crucial in ensuring the
safety of critical infrastructure, facilities, and events
[7,8,10,11]. Concept of drone position tracking by
multipleRFscannersis
showninFigure3.
Figure2.DiscovairG2acousticdetector(source:[9]).
Figure3. Drone position tracking by multiple RF scanners
(source:[2]).
3.3 Radarsystems
Radar systems use radio waves to detect drones.
Radar can detect drones at a distance and can track
their movements. There are several types of radar
systems, including pulsed radar, continuous‐wave
radar, and frequency‐modulated continuous‐wave
radar. Each type of radar has its advantages and
disadvantages, and
the choice of radar system
dependsonthespecificapplication[7,11–18].Samples
ofradarfordronedetectionareillustratedinFigures4
and5.
458
Figure4. Radar R8SS‐3D made by Teledyne FLIR (source:
[18]).
Figure5. Radar MESA‐SSR made by Echodyne (source:
[16]).
3.4 Opticalsensors
Opticalsensorsusecamerastodetectdrones.Optical
sensors can detect drones at a distance and can
provide visual confirmation of the droneʹs presence.
Opticalsensorscanbeusedduringthedayoratnight
using infrared cameras [3,19]. The optical detection
systemmadebyAroniaispresented
inFigure6.
Figure6. The optical detection system made by Aronia
(source:[19]).
4 ANTI‐DRONEEFFECTORS
4.1
Jammingsystems
Jammingsystemsdisruptthecommunicationbetween
thedroneanditsoperator.Thejammingsystemsends
out a signal that interferes with the droneʹs control
signal,causingittolose controlandcrash.Jamming
systems are effective against drones that are
controlled by remote operator [7,8,10,16,20–22].
Figures 7 and
8 present the commercial jammer
examples.
Figure7.JammerR&S®ARDN‐GSGNSSmadebyRohde&
Schwarz(source:[8]).
Figure8.JammerSKYNETmadebyLONGBOW+(source:
[22]).
4.2 Directedenergyweapons
Directedenergyweaponsusehigh‐poweredlasersto
disableordestroydrones.Thelaserbeamcandamage
the droneʹs electronics or cause it to crash. Directed
energyweaponsareeffectiveagainstdronesthatare
withinlineofsight[5,6,20,23].Figure9illustratesthe
vision of destroying drones
by a military system
basedonahigh‐energylaser.
459
Figure9.High‐poweredlaserinaction(source:[6]).
4.3 Nets
Netscanbeusedtocapturedronesmid‐flight.Thenet
is launched from a device that can be hand‐held
[17,24], or mounted on a vehicle [24]. The net
entangles the drone, causing it to lose control and
crash.Netsareeffectiveagainstdronesthatareflying
atlow
altitudes.
Figure10. Net cannon made by OpenWorks Engineering
(source:[24]).
5 ANTI‐DRONESYSTEMS
Anti‐drone systems are composed of sensors and
effectors that work together to detect and neutralize
drones.Thereareseveraltypesofanti‐dronesystems,
including fixed systems and mobile systems [2,3,10–
13,17,19,25–29].
5.1
Fixedsystems
Fixedanti‐dronesystems(seeFigure11)areinstalled
inaspecificlocationandaredesignedtoprotectthat
location.Fixedsystemsarecommonlyusedtoprotect
criticalinfrastructure,suchasairports,powerplants,
andgovernmentbuildings.
Figure11.ContainerversionofGUARDIONsystem(source:
[10]).
5.2 Mobilesystems
Mobile anti‐drone systems (see Figure 12) are
designedtobedeployedquicklyandcanbemovedto
different locations as needed. Mobile systems are
commonly used for events, such as concerts and
sportingevents,wherethereisaneedfortemporary
protection.
Figure12. Mobile version of AARTOS drone detection
system(source:[19]).
5.3 Exemplaryvendors
Therearenumerousvendorsofanti‐dronesystemsin
themarket.Thesevendorsoffervarioussolutionsthat
aretailoredtomeettheneedsofdifferentindustries,
such as military, law enforcement, and private
organizations. Some of the notable companies and
theirsystemsinclude:
DJI Aeroscope: This system provides drone
detection and tracking capabilities for law
enforcement agencies, allowing them to locate
drones in restricted airspace and identify the
pilotʹslocation.ThesystemiscompatiblewithDJI
drones, making it an ideal solution for those
operatingDJIdrones[27].
Dedrone: Dedrone provides an airspace security
platformthatusesmulti‐sensordetectiontodetect
and track drones, providing early warning to
users. The system integrates with various other
securitysystemsandcanbeusedtoprotectcritical
infrastructure,events,andothersensitivelocations
[4].
Raytheon: Raytheon offers a range of anti‐drone
solutions, including the Drone Defender, a
handheld device that uses radio frequency
jammingtodisabledrones,andtheCoyotedrone,
460
which is used to intercept and destroy other
drones[23].
D‐Fend Solutions: D‐Fend Solutions provides a
radio frequency‐based system called EnforceAir
that can detect and mitigate rogue drones. The
system can be used in urban, rural, and indoor
environments, making it suitable for various
applications[28].
Rheinmetall Defence: Rheinmetall Defence offers
the Skysweepsystem, which uses radar to detect
and track drones. The system is capable of
detectingdronesatarangeofupto10km,making
itanidealsolutionforprotectinglargeareas[29].
When comparing these solutions, itʹs essential to
consider factors
such as detection range, accuracy,
cost, and ease of use. Some solutions, such as DJI
Aeroscope and Raytheonʹs Drone Defender, are
designed for specific applications and may not be
suitable for all scenarios. Other solutions, such as
Dedroneʹs platform, offer a more comprehensive
approachthatintegratesvariousdetection
sensorsto
provide a complete airspace security solution. The
choiceofananti‐dronesystemultimatelydependson
thespecificneedsoftheuser,suchasthesizeofthe
areatobeprotected,thetypeofdronethreat,andthe
budgetavailable.
AsexamplesofPolishvendors,wemayindicate:
HertzSystems:Thiscompanyprovidesarangeof
anti‐drone systems, including the DroneBlocker,
which uses radio frequency jamming to disable
drones,andtheDroneTracker,whichusesacoustic
and electromagnetic sensors to detect and track
drones.Thecompanyʹssystemsareusedtoprotect
criticalinfrastructure,such as airports and power
plants[17].
APS Systems: It offers a range of anti‐drone
solutions, including the SkyWall 100, a handheld
device thatuses a net tocapture drones,and the
SkyWall 300, a fixed installation that can capture
drones at longer ranges. The companyʹs systems
are designed for use in urban environments and
can
beintegratedwithothersecuritysystems[12].
Both Hertz Systems and APS Systems provide
innovative solutions to detect and mitigate drone
threats. However, the choice of a system ultimately
dependsonthespecificneedsoftheuser,suchasthe
size of the area to be protected, the type of
drone
threat, and the budget available. As the threat of
drone incursionscontinuesto grow, itʹs essential for
organizations to invest in reliable and effective anti‐
drone systems to ensure the safety of critical
infrastructureandpersonnel.
6
SUMMARY
Theeventsofrecentyears,especiallyarmedconflicts
and terrorist attacks, show that the number of
incidentswithintentionaldestructiveuseofdronesis
increasing. Incidents of unintentional harmful drone
activity are also frequent. This results in potential
threats to human health and life and to the critical
infrastructurefacilities
ofcountries. Thesetrendsare
triggering the dynamic development of C‐UAS
systems, which are used to protect military units,
airports, public facilities, or the countryʹs critical
infrastructure. The survey of anti‐drone solutions is
showninthispaper.Wewanttocontinueresearchin
designing and implementing C‐
UASs for the
protectionofmilitaryunits,stateadministration,and
critical infrastructure facilities. We also plan to
considerinourfutureworksaspectsofcommandand
controlofC‐UAS.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was financed by the Military University of
Technology under project no. UGB/22‐863/2023/WAT on
‘Modern technologies of wireless communication and
emitterlocalizationinvarioussystemapplications’.
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