199
1
INTRODUCTION
Thetransportindustrycontributestoclimatechange
byemittingsignificantamountsofgreenhousegasses
into the atmosphere and at the same time plays an
important role in the economy, conditioning its
development. The economic advancement achieved
over the last few decades, together with the rapid
demographic explosion, has spawned huge
environmentalcostsaroundtheworld[1].Despitethe
positive aspects of transport, it affects not only the
environment,butalsopeople.Thetransportindustry
emits significant amounts of pollutants and is
responsible for around a quarter of the EUʹs total
greenhousegas(GHG)emissions.Itistransportthat
is
theonlymajoreconomicsectorinEuropewherethe
amountofgreenhousegasseshasincreasedmarkedly
since1990.Itisalsothelargestcontributortonitrogen
oxideemissions,whichareharmfultohealthandthe
environment. Similarly, road transportis recognized
as the main source of environmental noise pollution
in Europe.
The volume of transport activity has
affectedgreenhousegasemissionsanditisexpected
that the requirements as well as restrictions for all
modes of transport will become more stringent.
According to the European Commissionʹs report
Stepping up Europeʹs 2030 climate ambition.
Investinginaclimate‐neutralfuture
forthebenefitof
ourpeople,theEUhasadoptedthetargetofclimate
neutralityby2050,consistingin.reducinggreenhouse
gas emissions to net zero. Its current 2030 climate
targetof at least a 40% reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions, as well as relevant climate, energy and
transportlegislation,have
beenadoptedwithaview
toreducinggreenhousegasemissionsbyatleast80%
by2050.Europe,aimingtoachieveclimateneutrality
by2050,mustconsiderasustainablemobilitysystem
basedoncleanerandmoreactivemodesoftransport,
cleaner fuels and, where possible, reducing the
demandformobility[2,3].
An Analysis Of The Carbon Footprint In Maritime
Transport: Challenges And Opportunities For Reducing
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
A.Karaś
GdyniaMaritimeUniversity,Gdynia,Poland
ABSTRACT: The process of decarbonization and the pursuit of zero‐emissions growth are a challenge for
maritimetransport,whilestrictenvironmentalregulationsregardinggreenhousegasemissionscallforchanges
inbothorganizationalandtechnologicalprocesses.Theaimofthearticleistopresenttheproblemof
carbon
footprint in relation to the maritime transport industry . The article discusses the negative impact of sea
transportontheenvironment.Themainresearchobjectivewastoshedlightoncarbonfootprintinthecontext
of maritime transport as well as to identify the possibilities of its reduction, including
through regulatory
measures. Various research methods were used in the study, including a literature review, a review of the
documentationofIMOregulations,reportsandananalysisoftechnologiesimplementedtoreducepollutant
emissionsinmaritimetransport.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 17
Number 1
March 2023
DOI:10.12716/1001.17.01.22
200
Figure1. Growth in transport demand in Europe between
2000and2019
Source: own study basen on:„Transport and environment
report 2021, Decarbonising road transport — the role of
vehicles, fuels and transport demand” EEA Report, No
02/2022.
2 CARBONFOOTPRINTINMARITIME
TRANSPORT
Maritime transport plays a key role in the global
economy,enablinggoodstobetransportedovervast
distances between continents. According to World
Trade Organization (WTO) data [4], maritime
transport accounts for nearly 80% of global
internationaltrade.Meanwhile,theannualUNCTAD
‐ReviewofMaritime
Transportreportsshowthatthe
maritime transport market is still evolving and will
becomeamoreenergy‐intensivesectorthanitisnow
[5].Atthesametime,maritimetransportisalsooneof
themostemissivesectorsoftheeconomy.According
to the International Maritime Organization (IMO),
greenhouse gas emissions
related to maritime
transport account for approximately 2.5% of global
emissions, and their annual emissions exceed 1,000
milliontonnesofCO2[6].
Carbonfootprintisablankettermthatreferstothe
emissionsofgreenhousegassesgeneratedbyhuman
activities, and in particular to carbon dioxide
emissions,includingthelife
cycleof a product [7,8].
Nowadays, when climate change is becoming more
andmoretangible,thecarbonfootprintisoneofthe
mostimportantissuestoaddressinanattempttocurb
thenegativeimplicationsof global warming. On the
upside, however, the awareness concerning carbon
footprint is on the rise,
accompanied by increasing
awarenessofclimatechangeandthe needto reduce
greenhousegasemissions.
The carbon footprint of maritime transport is a
measure of the total amount of greenhouse gasses
emitted during the transportation process, from the
production of fuels to the delivery of cargo to its
destination.The
carbonfootprintisanimportanttool
inassessingthe impactofmaritime transport onthe
environment and climate change, as well as in
identifying areas where innovations, technologies,
changesinoperatingpracticescanbeintroduced,ora
policy of greening seaports and implementing good
environmental practices can be implemented. It
allows
fortheprecisedeterminationoftheimpactof
activitiesontheenvironment,whichinturnmakesit
possible to take appropriate action to protect the
environment,whileverificationof the reliability and
safety of technologies aimed at reducing pollution
from ship operations is of significant importance in
the development of
new technologies developed in
responsetoenvironmentalregulations[9].
Thecarbonfootprintinmaritimetransportcanbe
calculatedforindividualships, shipping lines,ports,
but also for entire supply chains. As with other
sectors, the calculation of the carbon footprint of
maritime transportcoversall stages of the life cycle,
including
fuel production and transport, ship
operation, loading and unloading, as well as
emissionsrelatedtothedeliveryofcargototheport
and its transport from the final port to final
destination. Calculation of the carbon footprint in
maritimetransportisacomplexprocessandrequires
detailed data on the
fuel consumption of ships,
transport routes, the amount of goods transported
and their characteristics, as well as the technologies
used.However,therearetoolsandstandards,suchas
ISO 14067 and the GHG Protocol, that define the
methodology for calculating the carbon footprint of
maritimetransportandhelpinreportinggreenhouse
gasemissions[10].
Standards, programs, tools, schemes and
methodologies for calculating CO2 are commonly
used[11].Themostimportantofthemarestandards,
tools, spreadsheets. Legal regulations are based on
threebasicdocuments:
EN16258
ISO14067
GreenhouseGasProtocol[12].
An important measurement parameter is the
European standard EN 16258 establishing a
preliminary methodology for calculating and
declaring energy consumption and greenhouse gas
emissionsrelatedtotransportactivities.Thestandard
defines general principles, definitions, system limits,
calculation methods, division and evaluation rules
[12].
The ISO 14067 standard
was issued in 2013 to
comply with the rules for calculating the carbon
footprint that is created during the life cycle of the
product.Thestandard also presentsconclusionsand
is obtained for organizations as well as other
applications for entities for which it is required and
importanttoverify
thecarbonfootprint.Thepurpose
ofthestandardisthesourceoforiginforthemethod
andtheextractionofGHGemissions[13].
Oneofthetoolsis alsotheGHGProtocol,which
establishes global standards, a standardized
frameworkfor measuringandmanaginggreenhouse
gasemissions.It is a tool for
calculating greenhouse
gasemissions‐GHGEmissionsCalculationTool,asa
free Excel tool from Greenhouse Gas Protocol and
WRI[14].
3
REDUCINGTHECARBONFOOTPRINTIN
MARITIMETRANSPORT
The carbon footprint, or greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions,associatedwith transportactivities,isone
ofthe majorchallengesfacing themaritimeindustry
201
today. One of the key challenges in reducing the
carbon footprint of maritime transport is the
introduction of more efficient energy solutions, and
theindustryisadoptingvariousinitiativestoreduce
its carbon footprint.There is, however, no foolproof
solution, and advanced carbon footprint reduction
requiresamultifacetedapproach[15].
Thescaleofthis
challengeis stillunder investigationandnoteasyto
assess.
Furthereffortstoreducegreenhousegasemissions
frommaritime transportation can be expected in the
comingyears.
1.
Developing alternative energy sources. As
technologyadvances,therewillbenewsourcesof
energythatcanbeusedformarinetransportation.
Examples include biofuels, hydrogen fuel cells,
ammonia, and solar and wind power. Modern
engines and propulsion systems, such as hybrid
electric, can significantly reduce greenhouse gas
emissions compared to traditional
engines.
However, the introduction of these technologies
requires significant investment. In addition, the
use of marine energy carries great potential, as
offshorerenewableenergygenerationisdrivenby
tides,windandwaves[16].
2.
Optimizationofoperationalactivities.Anotherway
to reduce the carbon footprint of shipping is to
optimize operational practices. Reducing ship
speeds, minimizing berthing time in ports,
cleaningandmaintainingthehulltoreducedrag,
or using the latest monitoring and cargo
managementtechnologiesarejustsomeexamples
of practices that can
significantly reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. Ship speed
optimization systems make it possible to
accurately determine a shipʹs optimal speed and
route, taking into account wind and currents.
Energymanagementsystemsallowfortheoptimal
use of energy on board a ship, thus significantly
reducing fuel consumption and greenhouse gas
emissionsatthesametime[17].
3.
Implementing more efficient technologies.
Examplesincludeimprovingexhaustgascleaning
systems, installing energy recovery systems and
installingwaste heat recoverysystems,andusing
lightweightmaterials.
4.
Adopting more stringent regulations. Another
possible approach to reducing greenhouse gas
emissionsinmaritimetransportistheadoptionof
more stringent regulations. Examples include:
limiting the speed of ships, introducing CO2
emissions charges, and stricter requirements for
SOxandNOxemissions.
5.
Launching Emissions Trading System. Emissions
trading schemes such as the European Emissions
TradingSystem(EUETS)providefortheinclusion
of emissions from shipping in the EU Emissions
TradingScheme.Thesystemwillallowemissions
trading, which encourages companies to reduce
greenhousegasemissions. There are currently no
specific regulations for
the scheme, but the
EuropeanCommissionisproposingtoexpandthe
scope of the EU ETS to include CO 2 emissions
from large ships (above 5,000 gross tons),
regardlessofflag[18].
6.
Cold ironing. The provision of adequate
infrastructure on the part of ports is also
important, and energy facilities at seaports are
seenasanintegralpartthatsignificantlysupports
the decarbonization of global shipping. The
installation of shore power facilities in ports
contributes to minimizing emissions from ships
dockingata
seaport.Land‐basedpowersupplyfor
ships while at berth, or cold ironing, as an
environmentallyfriendlytechnical solution, helps
eliminate emissions from engines while at berth
[19].
7.
Artificial intelligence (AI). The use of artificial
intelligencebasedondigitalplatformsisdesigned
toprovidereal‐timedataontheroute,speedand
positionofshipsheadingtoseaports.Thisdatais
thenanalyzedtoprovideanaccurateestimateofa
shipʹsarrivaltimeandadjustitsrouteaccording
to
the availability of berths. The data analysis is
expected to allow optimization of shipping and
operations, which in turn is expected to translate
into reduced greenhouse gas emissions.
Ultimately, the green digital corridor concept is
expected to enable accurate, real‐time
communicationbetweenports,terminaloperators
andcarriers[20].
8. Supportingresearchanddevelopment.Inorderto
accelerate technological progress and increase
energy efficiency in maritime transportation, it is
necessary to support research and development.
Tothisend,researchgrantsandscholarshipsmay
beawarded,andcompetitionsandindustryevents
may be held to raise public awareness of GHG
emissionsproblems
inmaritimetransportation.
4
IMOREGULATIONS
One of the most important regulatory instruments
dealing with pollution in maritime transport is the
International Convention for the Prevention of
PollutionfromShips(MARPOL),whichwasadopted
in1973.MARPOLregulatesemissionsofgreenhouse
gasses and other air pollutants related to maritime
transport[21].Aspartofthe
MARPOLConvention,in
2013,inaccordancewithAnnexVItotheConvention,
itwasestablishedthatshipswithagrosstonnageof
400 and more, engaged in international voyages,
should carry onboard a Ship Energy Efficiency
Management Plan (SEEMP). The IMO has adopted
requirements for the energy efficiency of ships
to
ultimately reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
from global shipping, recognizing that there are
severalwaystoimproveenergyefficiencyandreduce
CO2 intensity, citing as examples optimization of
speed,confirmationofberthaccessibilityandtimeof
arrival at port of destination, meteorological
navigation and hull maintenance, modernization of
equipmentto
optimizeenergyefficiencyandtheuse
ofalternativefuels.However,inthecaseofmeasures
implementedforenterprises,the IMO stipulatesthat
the improvement of the energy efficiency of ship
operations and the reduction of carbon dioxide
emissionsdependonmanyotherparticipantsbeyond
the shipʹs manager, including ship
repair yards,
shipowners,operators,charterers,cargoowners,port
serviceprovidersandshiptrafficmanagemententities
[22].
ThenextmeasureadoptedbytheIMOin2018was
astrategytoreducegreenhousegasemissionsrelated
202
to maritime transport. These actions set out that, by
2050,emissionsshouldbereducedby50%compared
to their 2008 levels. To this end, a number of
regulations have been introduced regarding fuel
consumption, the use of low emission technologies
and the introduction of new energy efficiency
standards for ships
[23]. As part of the IMO plan,
from1January2020,thepermissiblesulfurcontentin
fuel used by ships around the world was lowered
from 3.5% to 0.5%, which means that shipping
companiesmustinvestinnewtechnologiesorchange
theirapproachtofueltomeetnewrequirementsand
restrictions. Shipping will undoubtedly need new
technologies,newfuels and innovationsinthe years
tocomeinordertomeetitsgreenhousegasemissions
targetsandmovetowardszeroemissionsgrowth.In
addition to modern technologies, investments in
research and development and infrastructure are
equally necessary, and so is striving to
ensure the
safetyandprofitabilityofprojects.
The latest IMO 2023 regulations are to be a
continuation of the previous strategy to reduce
greenhousegasemissionscausedbyglobalmaritime
transport. The new rules aim to reduce carbon
emissions from both new and existing ships, as
measuredbytwomain
energyperformanceindicators
‐theEnergyEfficiencyeXistingShipIndex(EEXI)and
theCarbonIntensity Indicator(CII).Amendmentsto
Annex VI to the MARPOL Convention became
effectiveonNovember1st,2022,whiletheEEXIand
CIIcertificationrequirementsapplyfromJanuary1st,
2023,whichmeansthatthefirstannualreportingwill
end in 2023 and the first CII authorizations will be
issuedin2024.
The IMOʹs global environmental regulator is also
considering policies that encourage polluters to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions through price
signals, such as putting a price on carbon emissions
from ships. Emissions revenues could significantly
support these two
principles‐provided that
appropriatecarbonrevenuesarestrategicallyplanned
and implemented. For example, carbon revenues
could be prioritized for countries that may have a
moredifficulttransitiontooffshoreenergy,havebeen
less affected by climate change in the past, or may
have less capacity to cope. According Baresic et
al.,
studiesandprojectionsshowthattheevolutionofthe
carbonpricecouldbesignificant[24].Carbonpricing,
introduced in a scenario in which the minimum
targets set in the original IMO greenhouse gas
strategyaremet,couldgenerateatotalof$1.3trillion
to $2.6 trillion; In a full decarbonization
scenario,
revenuescouldrangefrom$1trillionto$2trillionby
2050[25].Anotherstudy–Maerskfoundthatafixed
carbontaxof$250pertonofgreenhousegaseswould
raise$3.7trillionby2050[26].
Figure2.Carbonpricesinthe‐50%scenario
Source:BaresicD.etal.,2022.
Figure3.Carbonpricesinthe‐100%scenario
Source:BaresicD.etal.,2022.
For the shipping industry,the implementation of
the new regulations means an assessment of the
measures already adopted so far, as well as taking
further steps towards modernizing the fleet and
implementing modern solutions. In the longer term,
the IMO 2023 restrictions are intended to help
promote more sustainable maritime transport
and
contribute to the IMOʹs broader and overarching
objectiveofreducingglobalwarming[27].Atpresent,
oneofthebiggestchallengesistomaintainabalance
between ambitious decarbonization policies and the
regulatorysphere,whichispreparingstrategicaction
plans,andtherealmaritimesector,inordertoagree
onadecarbonizationpathforthemaritimesectorby
2050acceptabletoallparties[28].
SolutionsproposedbytheIMO[18]:
5‐15% power systems, alternative propulsion
systems
5‐50%fleetmanagement
1‐10%voyageoptimization
2‐50%concept,speed,capability
upto75%speedoptimization
50‐90%fullelectricsystems
35%Bio‐LNG/LPGfuel
90%ofthirdgenerationbiofuel
80‐100%hydrogen,syntheticfuels
1‐10%energymanagement
2‐20% change in the construction of hulls,
superstructures
5‐25%combatingshipbiofouling.
203
5
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, reducing the carbon footprint of
maritime transport is key to protecting the
environment. The introduction of new technologies,
changesinoperatingpractices,theuseofalternative
energy sources and the establishment of regulations
arethemainwaystoachievethisobjective.Foryears,
the International Maritime Organization (IMO)
has
beenadoptinganumberofrulesandregulationsthat
set limits for sulfur, nitrogen or carbon dioxide
emissions, while calling for more ambitious and
decisive solutions that will reduce greenhouse gas
emissionsresultingfrommaritimetransport.TheIMO
strategyclearlyunderscorestheambitiontocontinue
efforts to completely eliminate
greenhouse gas
emissions from internationalshipping, and although
the maritime industry has been facing the need to
implementsuchsolutionsforyears,thecurrentones
aremerelytemporaryfixesonthepathtowardsmore
optimal models of action. Regulations and
implemented solutions should not be a quest for
makeshift ideals, and
the maritime industry needs
maturelarge‐scalesolutions.
Currently, global shipping is participating in
decarbonizationinaselectivewayatbest,andentities
that meet environmental requirements are few. And
while shipping companies are already testing
solutionstochangethat,thechallengesrelatedtothe
productionmethodsofalternative solutions
must be
recognized, as it is envisaged to replace energy
sources with fuels that are neutral in terms of both
production and extraction. At the same time, let us
keep in mind that the implementation of these
measures will require significant outlays and time,
which constitutes an important challenge for the
maritimeindustry.
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