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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Relevance of the research problem
International maritime policy is progressive at the
level of maritime technology but conservative in
terms of personnel management, as well as human
resource management, especially because of the
necessity to work on board a ship in extreme
conditions. On the one hand, the international
maritime policy regulates the global maritime
business and is gradually changing. On the other
hand, a lot of logistics companies and higher maritime
training institutions follow the principle that
“transport does not carry the goods, people do”.
Therefore, the international maritime policy has
adopted a practical idea of leadership that is relevant
to this post-industrial era. Employees in developed
countries are increasingly characterized not only by
material but also non-material work motivation, its
content and prestige, an opportunity for creative self-
expression, a need for a positive psychological
climate, and prospects of professional growth.
The Manila Seafarer Training Amendments to the
International Convention on Standards of Training,
Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW
Convention) has provided for seafarers’ leadership
training and its implementation in the teamwork of
the ship’s crew since 2010 [6, 21]. It is a political
change in order to strengthen the human element, i.e.
the personality of a maritime transport professional,
along with his/her technological knowledge.
Professionals are a crucial aspect of quality of the
activities on board.
The need for the implementation of leadership in
the field of seafaring is based not only on the maritime
Maritime Transport Employees’ Psychological Defense
Mechanisms and Self-management
S. Lileikis
Lithuanian Maritime Academy, Klaipeda, Lithuania
ABSTRACT: Following the principle that “transport does not carry the goods, people do”, this study identifies
the problematical aspects of professional experience of seafarers as people of maritime transport, as well as
personalities in terms of expression of their psychological defense mechanisms and their insights into the
possibilities for self-management. The type of the research is a qualitative, pilot and expert study, which has
indicated that seafarers are able to recognize their psychological defense mechanisms and can define them quite
clearly on the basis of their personal experience of living and working on board a ship. The abilities of seafarers’
intellectual consideration about their experience are acceptable from a point of view of scientific, namely,
psychoeducational logic. The development of self-leadership and transformational leadership skills may help to
partially control defensive reactions, and should be an appropriate tool to psychologically stabilize the
seafarers’ professional activities in terms of possibilities to create more constructive relationships among them
in a team while achieving the common purpose of transportation.
http://www.transnav.eu
the International Journal
on Marine Navigation
and Safety of Sea Transportation
Volume 16
Number 1
March 2022
DOI: 10.12716/1001.16.01.12
116
policy but also on psychosocial maritime science. The
more important scientific directions are as follows:
− Issues of the global seafaring management and
maritime policy;
− The need of democratization of relationships
among seafarers, and sociopolitical commitment to
seafarers at the international level;
− High-tech on board a ship, and the problem of
reduced ship crews;
− Empowerment of subordinates in companies, and
their appropriate reactions to the challenges on
board;
− The importance of social skills of seafarers, and the
strengthening their constructive collaboration
taking into account its multicultural nature;
− Leadership of institutions for training of seafarers,
and their psychological evaluation;
− Impact of transformational leadership on the
global economy competitiveness in shipping
sector, and managerial collaboration within the
crew;
− Supportive maritime leadership, moral and
professional authority of the shipmaster on board,
and promotion of seafarers’ self-confidence;
− Creation of vision and strategy of the activity, and
motivation of seafarers to work effectively and
safely;
− Physical and psychosocial factors, which relate to
the integral motivation for accepting maritime
work activities and to stay to work in the maritime
industry;
− Successful professional maritime career and
reduction of threats for health and life when
working on board a ship at sea;
− Application of leadership to healthy lifestyle of
seafarers and their abilities of the psychological
self-management, while experiencing psycho-
emotional stress, loneliness, social isolation,
monotony and depression;
− Culture of safety on board [1–4, 7–20].
Natural and semi-unconscious psychological
defense mechanisms manifest themselves as personal
security in difficult situations of co-existence on
board. A focus on one’s own personality and the
inevitable defense mechanisms in difficult situations
relates to the totality of self-leadership abilities in
terms of recognition of these mechanisms and self-
management.
It is very relevant that the people of maritime
transport, especially future seafarers, learn to
recognize their own psychological defense
mechanisms and do not allow themselves to be fully
overpowered by them in terms of valuable and
practical significance of maritime leadership. This
problem is quite new and should be explored not only
as an integral part of psychological and educational
studies of the people who are working on board, but
also – as a stand-alone issue, by conducting a
comprehensive scientific analysis.
It is appropriate to reveal some tendencies of this
phenomenon by investigating the expression of
psychological defense mechanisms and the
possibilities for self-management of seafarers as
people of maritime transport, at the level of a pilot
and expert study.
1.2 Methodology and organization of the research
The object of the research is the expression of
psychological defense mechanisms of seafarers as
people of maritime transport. The aim of the research
is to identify the problematical aspects of professional
experience of seafarers as personalities in terms of
expression of their psychological defense mechanisms
and their insights into the possibilities for self-
management regarding these mechanisms.
The type of the research is a qualitative, pilot and
expert study. The main methods, namely scientific
literature analysis, written survey of experts,
phenomenological content analysis, interpretation,
and synthesis, were applied to the research.
The process of simplified phenomenological
content analysis conducted during the research
consists of the following stages:
− Identification of manifest categories;
− Determination of the frequency of repetitive
categories;
− Interpretation of results.
The statistical sample of the pilot study consists of
36 seafarers (18 marine navigators and 18 marine
engineers, but this difference is not relevant to the
pilot study). Samples ranging in size from 10 to 40 per
group are evaluated for their adequacy in providing
estimates precise enough to meet a variety of possible
aims [5].
The mentioned seafarers are considered as survey
experts. They are professionals who purposefully
improve their qualifications at Lithuanian Maritime
Academy. The pilot study is homogeneous because all
interviewees are seafarers and all of them have more
than 10 years of practical experience on board a ship.
The validity of this study is justified by the main
following principles:
− Adherence to ethical standards;
− Long-term practical experience of the seafarers;
− Their free consent to participate in the survey;
− The fact that all questionnaires were returned and
all questions answered (no obvious signs of an
unfair response were found).
Thus, the validity of the non-representative pilot
study can be considered as sufficient.
The expression of psychological defense
mechanisms in the ship’s crew is analyzed in terms of
compensation, sublimation, opposite reaction,
projection, rationalization, and regression. Therefore,
the questionnaire consists of 6 + 1 open-ended
questions. All questions are answered, but the extent
of the answers varies greatly. When investigating the
expression of psychological defense mechanisms of
seafarers on board a ship, the following selected most
popular simplified problematic situations were
presented to the respondents:
1 How does compensation (e.g., a person who is not
a leader begins to portray the boss) appear in the
ship’s crew?
2 How does sublimation (e.g., a person feels
underestimated and, therefore, is trying to work
and communicate too hard) appear in the ship’s
crew?
117
3 How does an opposite reaction (e.g., a person hates
another person but panders to him/her) appear in
the ship’s crew?
4 How does projection (e.g., one person blames
another person but does not see his/her own
failures) appear in the ship’s crew?
5 How does rationalization (e.g., a person does
something wrong and is always trying to justify
himself/herself) appear in the ship’s crew?
6 How does regression (e.g., in case of failure, a
person starts screaming at others) appear in the
ship’s crew?
This also indicates the standpoint expressed by the
seafarers concerning the opportunities of a seafarer as
a leader, which would prevent him/her from being
completely overcoming by the psychological defense
mechanisms:
7 What should a seafarer as a leader do in order to
prevent himself/herself from being completely
overpowered by these mechanisms?
The mentioned 6 + 1 open-ended questions are the
basis for the structure of this article.
The basic methodological principles of the research
are as follows:
− The STCW Convention, i.e. its Manila
amendments, establishes an obligation to develop
leadership abilities of seafarers and apply them to
ship crews since 2010 [6]. Operational safety
ensured for employees in the field of maritime
transport is associated with the implementation of
leadership based on self-leadership development,
and expression of which is characterized by a
positive personal worldview, creativity, broad
intellectual horizons, understanding of
psychological defense mechanisms, and ability to
manage them, at least in part.
− Existentialism refers to the fear of a lonely person,
who meets an unfamiliar and hostile world on
land and at sea. Existential psychology expresses
hope by denying excessive attachment to the
pleasures of life and promoting the creative
liberation of personality. The development of
maritime leadership, of course, including self-
leadership, extends the person’s intellectual
horizons and helps to overcome the tragedy of
one’s existence, improve emotional state and find
peculiar consolation. Existentialism can help to
acquire a valuable basis for self-confidence and
self-regulation when working in extreme
conditions, especially when the boss is a leader
characterized by professional and moral authority
in supporting his/her subordinates.
− Personalistic humanism believes that seafarers are
people first, i.e. the people of maritime transport,
personalities, as well as values of socio-
technological life who have their life story and are
characterized by the ability of self-awareness,
learning, free and responsible decision-making,
respect for themselves and their colleagues on
board, teamwork, collaboration, and evaluation of
their work activities, as a way of their cultural
expression in seafaring.
2 RESEARCH RESULTS
2.1 Seafarers’ standpoints concerning their experienced
defense mechanisms
As it was mentioned, the expression of psychological
defense mechanisms in the ship’s crew is analyzed in
terms of compensation, sublimation, opposite
reaction, projection, rationalization, and regression.
The first question is “How does compensation
(e.g., a person who is not a leader begins to portray
the boss) appear in the ship’s crew?”. The answers of
the seafarers are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Expression of psychological compensation
_______________________________________________
CATEGORIES NUMBER OF
RESPONDENTS
_______________________________________________
“The boss on board is unable to explain 7
the task and is angry because of it”.
“The boss starts screaming when his 15
subordinates disagree with his
incompetent opinion”
“The shipmaster is engaging the aggressive 3
chief mate to solve the problem of
disobedience of a subordinate”
“The boss is hyperactive, avoids his 1
responsibility and is distracted”.
“Apparently, the shipmaster hates his life 2
and has been in an unsatisfying position
for too long”.
“The angry chief engineer is unhappy and 2
gives strange instructions”.
“A subordinate does not listen to the 2
outrageous boss and behaves in his own way”.
“The boss is unable to work in a team and 4
is too controlling”.
_______________________________________________
Total 36
_______________________________________________
It was found that the majority of the respondents
note that the boss on board a ship screams in a
difficult situation showing who is the boss. The
instructions of Scandinavian fleets, however, prohibit
screaming at subordinates, but such behavior as
psychological defense is natural.
A fifth of the seafarers distinguish their boss’s
anger as compensation for his inability to explain the
task. The compensational defense mechanism usually
characterizes less experienced leaders, especially
those who have got their positions not by working
hard from the point of view of consistent
development of their maritime career.
The second question is “How does sublimation
(e.g., a person feels underestimated and, therefore, is
trying to work and communicate too hard) appear in
the ship’s crew?”. The answers of the seafarers are
given in Table 2.
118
Table 2. Expression of psychological sublimation
_______________________________________________
CATEGORIES NUMBER OF
RESPONDENTS
_______________________________________________
“This is typical for new crew members, 5
especially for those who are starting
their career on board”.
“A mechanic wants a promotion but his 3
work and achievements are irrelevant
for a senior mechanic”.
“Sometimes there are those who work 9
more than it is required”.
“Some employees take dangerous but 1
not the most important actions”.
“Employees are afraid of losing their jobs”. 8
“They avoid work activities but like to 6
have discussions with the manager”.
“They cannot find their place in the crew”. 4
_______________________________________________
Total 36
_______________________________________________
The majority of the seafarers identify a situation
when some members of the crew are working more
than it is required. They also express their fear of
losing their job. When a person does not make much
effort, this can increase the risk of losing one’s job.
Generally, the answers of the seafarers are
practical, versatile, and psychologically mature,
especially when considering their answer about the
importance of finding one’s appropriate place in the
crew. The problem of crew integration inevitably
involves unnatural, defensive, and sublimating
behavior at work.
The third question is “How does an opposite
reaction (e.g., a person hates another person but
panders to him/her) appear in the ship’s crew?”. The
answers of the seafarers are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Expression of an opposite reaction
_______________________________________________
CATEGORIES NUMBER OF
RESPONDENTS
_______________________________________________
“It is very common between managers 14
and their subordinates”.
“The chief mate prepares coffee for the 1
shipmaster”.
“A person remains neutral in order to 8
avoid conflicts”.
“He knows that working with this person 3
will take a long time”.
“A person blindly follows the illogical 7
instructions of the primitive leader so that
he/she can grow in his/her career”.
“A seafarer is trying to please the senior 3
in rank”.
_______________________________________________
Total 36
_______________________________________________
It was identified that most seafarers have limited
themselves by defining a defensive and
psychologically simulated opposite reaction on board
a ship as a very common practice among managers
and their subordinates. It is also appropriate to note
their frequent desire to avoid conflicts and take care of
their own maritime careers. The predominant
categories explain the relevance of transformational
leadership of managers in seafaring.
The fourth question is “How does projection (e.g.,
one person blames another person but does not see
his/her own failures) appear in the ship’s crew?”. The
answers of the seafarers are given in Table 4.
Table 4. Expression of psychological projection
_______________________________________________
CATEGORIES NUMBER OF
RESPONDENTS
_______________________________________________
“The new crew member blames others, 1
although he has not fulfilled his duties”.
“The chief mechanic knows little and 11
attacks unnecessarily”.
“The man lacks self-confidence and 8
avoids responsibility”.
“When a person wants to attack others, it is 2
a sign of a mental disorder”.
“The manager gives inappropriate 8
instructions, is afraid of admitting to making
a mistake, and blames his subordinate”.
“By emphasizing other people’s mistakes, 3
the manager tries to hide his own mistakes”.
“This can happen to any crew member in 3
an emergency”.
_______________________________________________
Total 36
_______________________________________________
Most seafarers express doubt about the
professional competence of the manager. It means
that, because of this problem, he psychologically
defends himself by attributing his mistakes to others.
The seafarers also highlight the situation when the
manager lacks self-confidence and avoids
responsibility.
The respondents’ answers are logical and justify
projection as a mechanism of psychological defense.
Some seafarers say that psychological projection can
happen to any crew member in an emergency when
working on board. This statement shows the practical
experience of the seafarers and their psychologically
mature insights.
The fifth question is “How does rationalization
(e.g., a person does something wrong and is always
trying to justify himself/herself) appear in the ship’s
crew?”. The answers of the seafarers are given in
Table 5.
Table 5. Expression of psychological rationalization
_______________________________________________
CATEGORIES NUMBER OF
RESPONDENTS
_______________________________________________
“An employee is afraid of his/her boss”. 6
“The subordinate defends himself claiming 6
that he has been poorly explained how to
perform the task”.
“Seafarers make a mistake and then they are 12
afraid of losing the trust of others and damage
their own reputation”.
“The chief mechanic litters the room and does 1
not want to clean it”.
“The employee’s self-esteem is too high”. 4
“There are situations when after some time 2
we see that this way was the only possible way”.
“The cook of the ship does not cook well but 2
justifies himself by the lack of products”.
“Before starting work activities, experienced 3
seafarers carefully think about how they are
going to justify themselves in case of possible
failure”.
_______________________________________________
Total 36
_______________________________________________
It was found that the seafarers apply psychological
rationalization mostly because they are afraid of
losing the trust of others, especially the trust of the
administration, and damaging their own reputation.
The fear factor is often emphasized. The seafarers also
119
explain that a subordinate defends himself because he
has been poorly explained how to perform the task.
There are some situations in which, after some
time, the seafarers see that their chosen way was the
only way possible. This category is very rare but also
very significant at the level of a broader practical
professional approach. Thus, the seafarers perceive
psychological rationalization in the wider context of
their work activities and their long-term outcomes.
Generally, the professional erudition of seafarers
in Eastern Europe is a unique phenomenon, which
should be investigated in the social sciences of
seafaring more in terms of the relevant matter of
transformational leadership.
The sixth question is “How does regression (e.g., in
case of failure, a person starts screaming at others)
appear in the ship’s crew?”. The answers of the
seafarers are given in Table 6.
Table 6. Expression of psychological regression
_______________________________________________
CATEGORIES NUMBER OF
RESPONDENTS
_______________________________________________
“The manager screams at seafarers, 2
particularly trainees”.
“The chief mechanic lacks skills”. 1
“Some seafarers are panicking in stressful 9
situations”.
“The boss screams because his mistakes 1
are obvious to everyone”.
“The boss is very annoyed when someone 1
does not fulfill his duties”.
“A person has nervous disorders”. 4
“The manager lacks knowledge, patience, 6
and professional experience in particular”.
“The manager does not trust the subordinate 6
and thinks that he will not do his job well
on his own”.
“The chief mechanic is screaming and cursing 1
when the bolt is broken”.
“The manager has nowhere to pour out his 5
anger”.
_______________________________________________
Total 36
_______________________________________________
Most seafarers indicate that some people of
maritime transport are panicking in stressful
situations and, therefore, they psychologically regress
to primitive defensive self-expression. Moreover, the
seafarers quite often state that their manager lacks
knowledge, patience, and professional experience in
particular and does not trust the subordinate that he
will do his job well on his own.
There is a tendency that seafaring requires, in
particular, the seafarers’ abilities of self-leadership
and transformational leadership.
2.2 Seafarers’ recommendations on psychological self-
management
The seventh question is “What should a seafarer as a
leader do in order to prevent himself/herself from
being completely overpowered by these
mechanisms?”. Psychological defense mechanisms are
inevitable, but they may partially be controlled at the
cognitive level, i.e. meaningful perception of
personality. Seafarers’ recommendations are given in
Table 7.
Table 7. Seafarers’ recommendations on psychological self-
management
_______________________________________________
CATEGORIES NUMBER OF
RESPONDENTS
_______________________________________________
“Read the classics”. 3
“Find your place to relax”. 2
“Trust your knowledge and be self-critical”. 3
“Analyze your personal and others’ mistakes”. 6
„Control your emotions by perceiving their 10
nature”.
“Observe yourself and look at yourself as if 4
from the outside”.
“Be humane with other crew members”. 4
“Learn to predict a situation”. 4
_______________________________________________
Total 36
_______________________________________________
It was identified that most seafarers suggest
controlling one’s emotions by perceiving their nature.
A sixth part of them recommend analyzing personal
and others’ mistakes. These recommendations are
constructive. The answers of the seafarers are natural
and practical.
It is appropriate to note that the respondents’
vocabulary is not poor. Such words and phrases as
“classics”, “nature”, and “look as if from the outside”
show that. Long-term studies on the approach and
professional experience of seafarers make it possible
to generalize that poor vocabulary is usually not
characteristic of them. On the one hand, their
speaking can be characterized by professional slang.
On the other hand, the content of their speeches is
rich. This is a good prerequisite for their ability of
self-management.
3 CONCLUSIONS
In summarizing the problematical analysis of the
expression of psychological defense mechanisms of
seafarers as people of maritime transport, as well as
personalities, three statements about the pilot study
may be formulated, following the basic
methodological principles (STCW Convention,
existentialism, and personalistic humanism) of the
research:
− Seafarers are able to recognize their psychological
defense mechanisms and can define them quite
clearly on the basis of their personal experience of
living and working on board a ship.
− The abilities of seafarers’ intellectual consideration
about their experience are acceptable from a point
of view of scientific, namely, psychoeducational
logic. The development of self-leadership and
transformational leadership skills may help to
partially control defensive reactions, and should be
an appropriate tool to psychologically stabilize the
seafarers’ professional activities in terms of
possibilities to create more constructive
relationships among them in a team while
achieving the common purpose of transportation.
− The people of maritime transport are naturally
more characterized by the expression of
psychological defense mechanisms because of their
120
extreme working conditions. Partial management
of these mechanisms is a relevant scientific and
practical issue that should be more deeply
investigated. The expression of psychological
defense mechanisms of seafarers and their self-
management abilities should more frequently
become an object of psychosocial studies on
seafaring.
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