659

1 INTRODUCTION

Edible salt, halite, or sodium chloride is one of the

most abundant compounds on Earth. The importance

of salt for mankind cannot be overestimated. It is

difficult to imagine many areas of the economy

without the use of salt. Man has been using salt since

ancient times. Called “white gold” in the Middle

Ages, in modern times salt has been endowed with

the epithet of “white death” due to attributing to it the

development of diseases caused by inappropriate

nutrition [5].

Edible salt comes in many forms and types, including

table salt, evaporated salt, and sea salt. The origin of

salt and methods of obtaining it affect its composition,

properties and application possibilities. Sea salt,

which is obtained by desalinating sea waters, is of

great interest.

Salinas are found in coastal zones around the world.

In Europe, sea salt is obtained in countries such as

Bulgaria, Cyprus, Croatia, France, Greece, Spain,

Portugal, Slovenia, and Italy. Sea salt undergoes

natural evaporation, and the course and efficiency of

this process largely depends on the salt content in seas

and oceans, the geographical location of the saline and

the ambient temperature. The current system of sea

salt harvesting was probably introduced by the

Phoenicians in Mediterranean countries such as

Selected Quality Characteristics of Sea Salt Important

During Transport and S

torage

M. Śmiechowska, M. Ruszkowska & O. Olender

Gdynia Maritime University, Gdynia, Poland

ABSTRACT: Salt is obtained in various regions of the world and using differing technologies. The origin of the

salt and its production methods influence its composition, properties and application possibilities. In recent

years, sea salt has attracted a lot of interest, as it is commonly believed that it is richer in minerals than pure

evaporated salt. One of the oldest methods of extracting edible salt in the world is the evaporation of seawater.

Salinas are found in coastal zones of seas and oceans around the world. The salt obtained in the salin is

transported to its destination by various means of transport, including sea transport. Taking into account the

classification of sea cargo, salt is classified as solid mass cargo, and due to the physicochemical properties of

salt, the transport of this product by sea requires security.

The aim of this study was to present selected quality parameters of sea salt that are important in its transport

and storage. Parameters relevant from the point of view of transport, storage, technology and processing, which

are important in shaping the quality of sea salts were compared in salts obtained in various European salinas vs.

Himalayan

salt. These parameters included water activity, degree of granulation and discharge angle and

embankment angle. The paper also presents the characteristics of sea salts from microscopic analysis and an

assessment of the correct labeling of the product, which is important for the consumer of the packaged product.

In land transport, not only sea salt is transported in bulk, but also the product in commercial packaging, most

often weighing 1 kg.

http://www.transnav.eu

the International Journal

on Marine Nav

igation

and Safety of Sea Transportation

Volume 15

Number 3

September 2021

DOI: 10.12716/1001.15.03.21

660

Greece, France, Italy, and later transferred to Spain

and Portugal thanks to the Roman Empire [11].

Salinas create a special ecosystem, classified as

agricultural activity, which, due to the acquisition of

food raw materials, should be subject to special

protection [3]. They are usually located in sparsely

populated places, where no industrial activity is

carried out, so that industrial and anthropogenic

pollutants do not enter coastal waters, because the

quality of sea salt depends on the cleanliness of sea

water and reservoirs [20]. The entire cycle from filling

the tank with water to obtaining salt takes from

several months to several years. Salt production

depends mainly on high sunlight intensity and

temperature and low relative humidity, thus is

favored mainly by summer months with high

temperatures [8].

Table salt obtained from mines and sea salt are

transported by different means, including sea

transport. Salt is classified as a Group C cargo in the

International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes (IMSBC) Code.

This cargo is highly soluble and, depending on its origin, is

characterized by variable humidity (up to 5.5 %). Sea

transport of this type of cargo is defined by IMSBC,

which is constantly supplemented and subject to

changes inspired among others by the results of the

research on transportation. The development of

information systems recording the quality of loose

cargoes transported in bulk allows to increase the

selection and application of correct sea transport

technologies and the safety of transport [13]. During

sea transport of solid bulk cargoes, a number of

dangerous phenomena may occur, which may result

from the properties of the ingredients included in the

goods, the quantity of goods transported, and the

form of their transport [17]. The research carried out

by the authors of this publication fits into this topic.

2 RESEARCH MATERIAL AND METHODS

The research material consisted of 8 sea salts and one

Himalayan (white) salt that were purchased on the EU

market. Table 1 presents the characteristics of the

tested salts. Sea salt samples taken for testing were

coded from I to IX and sealed in tight packages

protecting against moisture.

The correctness of the labeling was assessed in

accordance with the Regulation (EU) [18] No

1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the

Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food

information to consumers.

Samples of the studied salts were also subjected to

microscopic analysis for their visual evaluation using

the OPTA-TECH SK series stroboscopic microscope,

at 100× magnification, using the Optaview 7 software.

The water activity in the samples of the studied

salts was determined with the AquaLab 4TE

apparatus, version AS4 2.14.0 2017 by Decagon

Devices, Inc. at a temperature of 25 ± 1 °C [15].

The color of the samples was determined by

measuring the L*a*b* components in the CIELAB

color space using a Konica Minolta C-410 apparatus.

The apparatus was calibrated with evaporated salt [2].

Physicochemical properties were assessed by

determining the granulometric composition of the

studied salts, the static angle of repose and the kinetic

angle of repose [6, 19].

The Microsoft Office Excel spreadsheet package

was used to analyze the obtained results both

statistically and mathematically. The position and

dispersion measures, arithmetic mean and standard

deviation, were used to statistically describe the

physicochemical properties of the salt.

Table 1. Characteristics of the research material

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

Salt Salt Country Granularity Price Declared composition

code producer of origin kg [€]

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

I Radix-bis Croatia Coarse-grained 1.54 Sodium chloride (>98%), calcium (<0.20%), magnesium (0.19%),

sodium iodide (<5 mg/kg), naturally occurring iodide, E536

(anti-caking agent)

II O'Sole Greece Coarse-grained 0.83 Sodium chloride (99.5%), 3.9±1.3 mg/kg KIO3 – potassium

iodate (enriching agent), E536 (anti-caking agent), iodine

(23100 µg/kg)

III Crystalline Greece, Coarse-grained 1.91 Unrefined, 100% coarse-grained sea salt; does not contain anti-

Medditerranean caking agents

Sea

IV Museo Canary Islands, Coarse-grained 1.51 Natural, no additives

de la sal Fuertaventura

V Symbio Portugal Coarse-grained 1.51 Natural, may contain sesame seeds or soy, salt 98%

VI - Greece, Coarse-grained 3.71 Edible salt with high iodine contents, no chemical additives,

organic product product naturally rich in mineral salts

VII Kotanyi Origin Coarse-grained 1.76 Iodized, potassium iodate (26.0–33.7 mg/kg salt)

not stated

VIII Laeso Salt Denmark Coarse-grained 38.51 Sodium chloride (95%), other minerals (5%), naturally occurring

iodine

IX Livity Pakistan Coarse-grained 3.13 Himalayan salt, crystal size 1–2 mm, natural

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

Explanations: (-) – no information on the package

Source: Own elaboration based on information contained on unit packages

661

Table 2. Assessment of the correctness of the labeling of sea salt

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

Information on the packaging I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

Product name ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Composition ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗

Name and address of producer ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✓ ✓

Country of origin ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✓ ✓

Best before date ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Net weight ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Production batch number ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✓ ✓

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

Abbreviation: (✓) – criterion fulfilled; (✗) – criterion not fulfilled.

Source: Own elaboration.

3 RESEARCH RESULTS

3.1 Assessment of the correctness of labeling of sea salt

packages

Prior to conducting the microscopic and

physicochemical analyzes of the studied sea salts, the

correct labeling of the product introduced on the

market was assessed. The results of this assessment

are presented in Table 2.

Pursuant to the Regulation (EU) [18] No 1169/2011

of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25

October 2011 on the provision of food information to

consumers, the manufacturer is required to provide

the necessary information about the product on the

packaging. Not all sea salts assessed for labeling

correctness displayed the mandatory information as

required by this regulation. Fuertaventura salt and

Himalayan salt did not contain information about the

composition of the product. Most reservations

regarding the availability of information intended for

the consumer were found in the Kotanyi brand sea

salt, where the country of origin and the name and

address of the producer were not indicated on the

packaging (Table 2). The regulation imposes an

obligation on producers to correctly label their

products.

However, do consumers use this information? The

research conducted in 2010 in Great Britain shows that

only a third of consumers read the information on the

labels [9]. However, recent studies have shown that

consumers are increasingly knowledgeable about food

and nutrition, resulting in increased interest in the

content of food labels. Vegans and vegetarians, people

on diets restricting or excluding certain food

ingredients, e.g., gluten-free diets, diabetics, people

suffering from food allergies and intolerances, and

avoiding food additives, such as sodium glutamate or

table salt, are particularly interested in informative

labeling. Ultimately, the results of this study suggest

that food producers should develop and implement

such strategies to improve food labeling, as well as the

nutritional status of consumers [1].

The data in Table 1 shows also that the factor that

highly differentiates the studied sea salts is the price

per unit package that ranges from 0.83 to 38.51 €/kg.

The high price of Laeso Salt compared to others is due

to its composition and the difficulty of obtaining, as

well as its uniqueness among other products. It is

complicated composition, different from other sea

salts, is the result of mixing fresh and sea waters and

the participation of the halophytes Limonium sp. and

Armeria sp. in salt secretion, which takes place via

two processes: seawater intrusion and

evapotranspiration, as well as the complex

geochemistry and hydrochemistry of aquifers on the

Danish island of Laeso [10]. Information about the

price of a product is very often a decisive factor in the

purchase of a food product by the consumer [14].

Another factor differentiating the studied sea salts

is the addition of iodine compounds (Table 1). The

Regulation of the Minister of Health of September 16,

2010 on food additives specifies the amount of

potassium iodide or potassium iodate added to table

salt so that 100 g of table salt contains 2.3 (±0.77) mg of

iodine, which corresponds to 30 (±10) mg of

potassium iodide or 39 (±13) mg of potassium iodate.

This supplementation is aimed at protecting the

public against iodine deficiency. Sea salt producers

often do not add iodine compounds to salt, because

sea salt contains iodine in its composition. However,

the iodine content of sea salt varies greatly and

therefore it is recommended to iodize sea salt as well.

The lack of information about the addition of iodine

salt does not prove that sea salt contains enough

iodine. Salt iodination is used in many countries

around the world [4].

3.2 Microscopic analysis of sea salts

The microscopic images of the studied salts showed a

large variation in the structure and size of the crystals

(Photo 1). Well-formed salt crystals were observed for

Radix-bis from Croatia (I), O'Sole from Greece (II),

Crystalline from Greece (III), organic salt from Greece

(VI), Kotanyi brand sea salt of unknown origin (VII)

and Himalayan salt (IX), the crystals of which were

the largest and retained an almost perfect cubic

structure. The microscopic images of the salts

included in this group are confirmed by the sieve

analysis, which confirmed that the fraction of particles

measuring below 0.8 mm was in the range of 0–1%.

The second group consists of fine-grained salts,

including sea salt from Fuerteventura (IV), sea salt

from Portugal (V) and Laeso Sal from Denmark (VIII).

In this group of salts, the sieving of particles smaller

than 0.8 mm ranged from 2–12%. The size and nature

of salt crystals affect its physicochemical properties.

Studies on the solubility of halite, its crystallization

and recrystallization provide valuable results that are

important to explain these physicochemical

phenomena, but also may play a role in storage,

transport and industrial technology [12, 16].

662

I II

III IV

V VI

VII VIII

Photo 1. Microscopic photos of the studied salts.

Source: Photographed by the authors.

3.3 Assessment of the water activity of sea salts

One of the important parameters characterizing food

is water activity. Sodium chloride (halite) crystallizes

from solutions most often as a dihydrate chemical

compound NaCl·2H

2O, known as hydrohalite.

Although hydrohalite has been known for over 200

years, its exact structure has been resolved relatively

recently. Halite and hydrohalite crystals differ in

shape and properties. Knowledge in this field may be

of key importance, among others, in the transport and

storage of salt and salted food, in its nutritional

properties, and affect the shelf life and palatability of

the product. Scarcity of publications on this subject

may be due to the fact that pure hydrohalite is

difficult to obtain. Pure halite crystallizes in a cubic

system, but when the crystals grow as a result of

evaporation from an aqueous solution, it loses its

perfect shape. At high supersaturation, funnel-shaped

walls with dendritic branches appear, which is the

cause of halite clumping, i.e., agglomeration.

Agglomerated halite is not desirable in food

production as it makes it difficult to pack and store

salt, dissolve it and fit it into food products. Before

introducing to the technological process or packaging,

the agglomerated salt should be crushed.

Table 3. Water activity of the studied sea salts

_______________________________________________

Salt code no. aw (

XS±

)

_______________________________________________

I 0.36 ± 0.010

II 0.37 ± 0.031

III 0.36 ± 0.017

IV 0.51 ± 0.003

V 0.37 ± 0.001

VI 0.34 ± 0.006

VII 0.35 ± 0.012

VIII 0.34 ± 0.004

IX 0.33 ± 0.007

_______________________________________________

Abbreviation: S – standard deviation

Source: Elaboration based on own data, n = 6

Water activity a

w in the studied samples of sea salts

remained mostly at a similar, low level in the range a

= 0.33 ± 0.007 to a

w = 0.37 ± 0.031 (Table 3). Only the

sample from the saline in Fuertaventura (IV) was

characterized by water activity a

w = 0.51 ± 0.003. This

value was significantly different from the other values

of the water activity. We suppose that the cause may

be due to its composition and further research on the

water activity of this sea salt should be pursued in this

direction (Table 3). The packaging of the

Fuerteventura sea salt lacks the composition of the

product and the proportion of sodium chloride is not

stated. With a lower content of sodium chloride and

the coexistence of calcium and magnesium salts, the

product may become more hygroscopic until reaching

the wetting effect. The study by Silva et al. shows that

sea salt is rich in various volatile organic compounds.

These compounds come from environmental elements

such as plants, algae and marine organisms and

characterize sea salt, regardless of its geographical

origin. On the other hand, while volatile sea salt

compounds are minor ingredients, they can be viewed

as flavor compounds that can affect the organoleptic

and chemical properties of foods to which sea salt is

added.

The water molecules contained in the salt are

mostly structural water, which is inaccessible to

microorganisms and remains in a state of chemical

inactivity. The low value of water activity in the salt,

including sea salt, explains its use as a food

preservative. The development of microorganisms is

practically impossible if the water activity drops

below 0.6. We note here that a sorption isotherm is in

principle a more accurate way of characterizing the

water activity of a bulk cargo subjected to varying

moisture conditions, however, the determination of

sorption isotherms is beyond the scope of this paper.

663

3.4 Particle size distribution of sea salts

The studied sea salts were characterized by different

sizes of crystals. The grain size composition of sea

salts is shown in Fig. 1. The salt from the saline in

Fuertaventura, where as many as 6 fractions were

identified in the sieve analysis, turned out to be the

salt with very different sizes of crystals. The largest

fraction of crystals was 2 mm in size (42%). The most

uniform granulometric composition was characteristic

for two sea salts from Greece and Kotanyi brand salt

of unknown origin. In these salts, the content of the

fraction with a crystal size of 2 mm was over 90%.

Figure 1. Particle size distribution of sea salts

Source: Own study.

Measurement of the particle size distribution is

very important when loading solid bulk cargoes and

packing loose products. Different sizes of crystals

make it difficult to fill unit packages when using the

volumetric method, hence the weight method is

recommended in such cases. In addition, the particle

size distribution is also influenced by other factors

discussed in the section on sea salt crystallization.

3.5 Measurement of the static and kinetic angle of repose

of sea salts

The parameters defined as the static and kinetic angle

of repose are physical properties of great importance

in transport, storage, as well as packaging and

confectioning of goods. The kinetic angle of repose is

used to assess the looseness of products. It is the angle

between the generatrix and the base of the cone of a

pile of freely poured product. This parameter is

extremely important when determining the area

needed for the storage of loose products [19]. Although

angle of repose is a characteristic of non-cohesive bulk

cargoes and salt is not classified as such, the angle of repose

is often used to determine the storage properties of bulk

sodium chloride [22]. The values of the kinetic angle of

repose of the studied sea salts are presented in Table 4

for two types of surface: rough and smooth.

The kinetic angle of repose, depending on the

surface used, ranged from 42.539 to 53.485º (Table 4).

The measurement of the angle of repose determines

the flow ability of the material. The greater the value

of the angle, the lower the flow properties of the

product, and the lower the value of the angle, the

better the looseness of the powdered product under

evaluation. Free flowing powders have an angle lower

than 40°, powders with a kinetic angle of repose

higher than 50° are characterized by low flow

properties. The results of the measurement of the

kinetic angle of repose for the rough surface indicate

that the studied salts can be assessed as medium-

flowable salts, while for the smooth surface most of

the tested sea salts should be treated as low-flowable

products.

Table 4. Average kinetic angle of repose of the studied sea

salts [°]

_______________________________________________

Salt code no. Kinetic angle of repose [°]

Rough surface Smooth surface

_______________________________________________

I 47.813 48.559

II 45.003 45.311

III 46.410 50.602

IV 49.138 51.091

V 46.493 48.023

VI 46.909 49.240

VII 46.515 47.155

VIII 51.295 53.485

IX 46.837 50.962

_______________________________________________

Source: Elaboration based on own data, n = 6

The determination of the static angle of repose for

the studied sea salts was performed on four surfaces:

abrasive cloth, glass, smooth plate and metal (Table 5).

The best pouring properties on the metal surface (the

lowest static angle of repose) was characteristic of the

salt from Kotanyi. This would also indicate the lowest

frictional forces between the crystals of the product.

The salt from Feurtaventura (IV) (43°) was

characterized by the greatest angle of repose. On a

smooth surface, the salt with the lowest static angle of

repose was sea salt from Greece (III) (ca. 19°), while

the Danish Laeso Salt (VIII) was the salt with the

largest angle (35°). The salt with the lowest static

angle of repose on the glass surface was Kotanyi

brand salt (16°) and the highest value was

characteristic of the salt from Feurtaventura (IV) (34°).

The abrasive cloth, due to its coarse granularity,

provided the highest resistance for the crystals of the

tested products. The salt with the highest static angle

of repose on this surface was the Laeso Salt (ca. 66°)

and the lowest angle was found for the Kotanyi brand

salt and Himalayan salt (34°).

The measurements of the static angle of repose can

be used for selection of appropriate materials for the

construction of devices for packaging loose materials,

as well as for fabrication of unit packages made of

various types of packaging materials.

Table 5. Average static angle of repose of the studied sea

salts [°]

_______________________________________________

Salt code no. Static angle of repose [º]

Surface material

Metal Smooth plate Glass Abrasive cloth

_______________________________________________

I 25.333 25.000 20.333 37.000

II 24.667 20.000 21.667 35.667

III 25.000 19.333 20.667 35.667

IV 43.000 35.000 34.000 50.000

V 34.000 29.000 23.000 48.000

VI 25.333 21.000 19.667 35.333

VII 24.000 20.000 16.000 34.000

VIII 35.000 35.333 30.000 66.333

IX 25.333 19.667 19.667 34.000

_______________________________________________

Source: Elaboration based on own data, n = 6

3.6 Color of sea salts

Color measurement in the CIELAB system is based on

determining the L* component, describing the

664

brightness, and the a* and b* components, describing

the share of green and red, as well as yellow and blue,

respectively. The brightness of the color expressed as

the L* parameter assumes a value of 0 for black and

100 for white. The brightness of the tested sea salts

expressed by the L* parameter varied in a wide range

from 61.85 to 89.25 (Table 6). The salt of Laeso Sal

(VIII) was closest to the white color, while the

Himalayan salt (IX) was closest to the gray color.

Table 6. Color parameters of the studied sea salts

_______________________________________________

Salt Color measurement in the CIELAB system (

XS±

)

code L* parameter a* parameter b* parameter

no.

_______________________________________________

I 65.11 ± 0.505 –0.18 ± 0.025 1.05 ± 0.017

II 78.50 ± 1.633 –0.10 ± 0.036 0.29 ± 0.026

III 68.80 ± 0.417 –0.15 ± 0.019 0.41 ± 0.048

IV 72.45 ± 0.407 0.06 ± 0.026 1.40 ± 0.113

V 81.61 ± 0.702 –0.30 ± 0.022 0.86 ± 0.040

VI 69.80 ± 0.262 –0.24 ± 0.053 0.39 ± 0.064

VII 73.90 ± 0.407 –0.23 ± 0.024 0.80 ± 0.042

VIII 82.80 ± 0.603 –0.51 ± 0.012 2.54 ± 0.081

IX 64.60 ± 1.273 –0.22 ± 0.071 0.99 ± 0.292

_______________________________________________

Abbreviation: S – standard deviation

Source: Elaboration based on own data

The a* parameter ranged from –0.51 to 0.39. This

parameter indicates the color saturation from green

(negative values) to red (positive values). The tested

salts do not contain compounds which color lies on

the color axis from green to red. Negative values for

green and low indications of the share of red in

shaping the color of the final product indicate the

absence of other compounds that could affect the

appearance of such shades in the tested salts.

The value of the b* parameter ranged from 0.26 to

2.54. This parameter tells about the color saturation

from blue (–) to yellow (+). The results of the color

measurement indicate that the color of the studied

salts is dominantly white with a slight shade of gray

and a slight yellow tint.

Research on the color of salt was carried out for

table salts [21] and showed that the color of the salt

may be affected by the geological conditions in which

the deposits were formed and by the presence of

various types of contaminants in the form of

coexistence of other compounds. The salt deposits are

not only made up of pure sodium chloride and that is

why we observe such a large variation in the color of

the salt as yellow, pink or blue.

Drake and Drake [7], studying the composition of

sea salts from different parts of the world, also found

that sea salts appeared in various colors, such as

white, gray, black, pink, peach and brown-red, and

the color depended on mineral impurities absorbed

from surroundings. For example, black salts got their

color by adding activated carbon. The color of pink

Himalayan salt comes from trace amounts of iron.

During transport and storage, the color of the salt

should be monitored, as under the influence of factors

such as temperature and humidity, the color may

change.

4 CONCLUSIONS

In the light of the conducted research, more attention

should be paid to the informative aspect of the salt

packaging. This issue is important for the final

consumers of the product.

The regulations concerning the addition of iodine

compounds to sea salt and the determination of the

iodine content in sea salt require standardization.

The studied coarse-grained sea salts were

characterized by low water activity, which proves a

well-conducted crystallization process and

subsequent distribution processes.

Particle size distribution, as well as the values of

the static and kinetic angle of repose allow to classify

the studied salts as moderately loose materials.

Water activity, as well as particle size distribution

and angle of repose are crucially important

parameters from the point of view of transportation of

a solid bulk cargo such as salt.

The studied sea salts were characterized by an

even white color with a shade of gray or a slight

yellow tint.

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