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1 INTRODUCTION

Over the course of time, numerous accidents at sea

have resulted into an abandon-ship situation. The

impact of a certain number of them was quite

influential [12], such as the Titanic disaster that has

paved the way for the introduction of the Safety of

Life at Sea (SOLAS) convention [6] and the MS

Estonia in 1994 that highlighted the need for more

effective life-raft designs and improvements of

relevant regulations (Life Saving Appliances (LSA)

Code), as well as adjustments to the associated

training requirements under SOLAS. Of particular

interest is also the case of Costa Concordia. Even

though that specific vessel was adequately outfitted

with all the equipment and systems prescribed in the

An Automated Lifeboat Manifesting Embarkation

System (ALMES): Optimizing Evacuation and Passenger

Manifestation Via RFID/NFC

A. Andreadakis, T.F. Sloane & D. Dalaklis

World Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden

ABSTRACT: Today, a significant number of quite advanced technology applications support safety at sea. To

the dismay of the maritime industry, the manifestation of passengers during an evacuation scenario/case has not

followed a similar path of improvement, when compared to the counterpart Life Saving Appliances (LSA)

Code. Embarkation and muster proceedings are still following the similar approaches that were established

during the early 1900s. There have been relatively few advances in these procedures; most often, they include

manually checking-in the passengers on electronic systems, along with “on the spot” completion of check-off

lists and passenger counts, allowing for an influx of potential error by the concerned personnel. Furthermore,

the rely and transmission of the manifest to a Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre (MRCC) is often associated

with a considerable amount of time, or even involving secondary passenger counts, after the disembarkation

event has been concluded. It is understandable that a vessel with limited people on-board (tankers, bulk

carriers, container vessels, etc.) can effectively be abandoned in a matter of minutes, but what happens with

vessels carrying a large number of passengers and more specifically those heavily engaged with cruising

activities? This paper examines the creation of an electronic manifestation system that will be able to

automatically record the passengers during lifeboat embarkation. This proposed system will employ the use of

Near-Field Communication (NFC) and/or (Radio-frequency identification) RFID bracelets, that are already

utilized within the cruise industry. It will record relevant passenger and crew data, upon their boarding on the

designated lifeboat, through readers installed on the parallel sides of the entryway. The data will be displayed

in electronic tablet devices to the lifeboat leaders, as well as to the Master of the vessel in real-time. This will

allow for an accurate representation of the evacuation process in any given moment. Furthermore, a complete

“snapshot” of that information can also be directly transmitted to the MRCC via an automated message and

without any further human intervention, or even stored locally aboard the lifeboats used for the evacuation and

the ship’s Vessel Data Recorder (VDR).

http://www.transnav.eu

the International Journal

on Marine Navigation

and Safety of Sea Transportation

Volume 15

Number 1

March 2021

DOI: 10.12716/1001.15.01.23

216

LSA Code, it is clear that lessons in relation to an

abandon-ship situation have yet to be learned and

effectively implemented (with gaps in “soft skills”

like leadership clearly standing out), despite the

technological progress recorded in recent years [18].

Accidents and associated lessons learned, such those

mentioned above, have changed the perception of

safety on-board vessels and have contributed to great

progresses in the field [11].

Technology applications supporting the shipping

industry are numerous; probably, the most significant

progress has been made in the field of systems

supporting the contact of navigation. In a modern

bridge, there are various systems assisting the

navigator, such as ARPA (Automatic Radar Plotting

Aid) Radars (which have the ability to detect

accurately and automatically plot targets), satellite-

based navigation systems like GPS, GLONASS and

GALILEO, various communication means, and more

importantly: the Electronic Chart Display and

Information System (ECDIS) that is working in unison

with the Automatic Identification System (AIS) and

allows for an improved situational awareness and an

optimised understanding of what exactly is

happening around the vessel at sea [17].

In the realm of Life Saving Appliances (LSA)

research has contributed into many advancements,

such as self-deploying life-rafts, Emergency Position

Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRBs), and Search and

Rescue Transponder (SARTs) [8]. These devices and

systems have truly advanced the level of safety at sea.

Nevertheless, even though there has been immense

growth and breakthroughs in technology applications

and especially those related to the LSA field,

procedures around evacuation of vessels have not

progressed with a similar pace. It is true that lifeboats

have significantly improved in terms of construction

standards, propulsion systems, communications, and

self-launching systems. Additionally, great effort has

been placed in order to develop the davit based

launching proponents that are effectively being used

in all types of vessels (e.g. Gravity Davits, Fixed

Davits, Miranda Davits, Free Fall Davits), with the

aim to reduce the time of the lifeboats launching and

make the procedure of evacuation safer;

unfortunately, the methods of evacuation have not

followed the same path of improvement. Today, in

most passenger and cruise vessels in case of an

evacuation, passengers are being manifested verbally

before they embark on a lifeboat, something that

makes the evacuation procedure extremely time-

consuming and arduous.

As per SOLAS requirements, the time from the

order of evacuation until the boat is in the water is

thirty (30) minutes for passenger/cruise vessels

(Annex 6.2.2.2) [9], something that is only achievable

in ideal conditions and situations, as it was evident

during the rather recent evacuation of M/V Viking

Sky [19]. Unfortunately, in reality such figures are

unobtainable during a disembarkation procedure;

panic, self-preservation instinct, fear, and insecurities

take control over both crew and passengers, making

the evacuation procedure more protracted in time

[23]. As it is evident from the historical accounts of

maritime casualties, the fatalities in most of the cases

(with Scandinavian Star and Costa Concordia

obviously standing out) can be attributed largely to

human error and poor decision-making (before, or)

after the accident and not to the accident itself [3].

In efforts to hasten evacuation times, the impact of

the human element and the issues encompassed

within must be removed from the equation. To

effectively deal with these complications, the

proposed solution could be an automation of

passenger manifestation during lifeboat embarkation.

The proposed method of achieving a more efficient

evacuation process involves the utilization of Radio-

frequency identification/ Near-Field Communication

(RFID/ NFC) technology currently implemented

within the cruise industry [16]. RFID systems consist

of a reader with an antenna, and a transponder (tag).

There are two different RFID tags available (active

and passive). The active has its own power supply,

while the passive does not have a power source and

has to be supplied with energy given by an

electromagnetic field produced by the reader.

Passive transponders or tags are available in three

different RFID frequency ranges: Low frequency (LF),

high frequency (HF) and ultra-high frequency (UHF).

The reading range of LF and HF systems is usually

only a few centimetres. UHF tags, however, are often

readable over distances of more than one meter. NFC

is also based on the RFID protocols. The main

difference to RFID is that a NFC device can act not

only as a reader, but also as a tag (card emulation

mode). In peer-to-peer mode, it is also possible to

transfer information between two NFC devices. NFC

systems operate on the same frequency as HF RFID

(13.56 MHz) systems. Therefore, there are only short

read range limitations.

Recently, cruise lines have been adopting the use

of the aforementioned technologies through on-board

transactions, as well as an access method to several

spaces within the vessel. This newly introduced piece

of technology contains the personal information of

individual passengers on multitude of vessels; most

recently Royal Caribbean has implemented a network

which enables the tracking of the passengers

throughout the vessel by means of a system of RFID

transponders (Oasis of the Seas - Royal Caribbean)

[19].

2 JUSTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT:

Research for this development was conducted using

mainly a qualitative method, through the examination

of past accidents within the maritime industry, that

have had really adverse impact on passengers and

crew and often resulting in the loss of human life.

Furthermore, certain attributes of sociological

research were applied through the analysis of the

human element and reaction during times of immense

stress, panic and pressure due to external influences

outside the realm of control [10].

Additional data was collected through research of

sources examining complications within the

evacuation procedure focusing on a catastrophic

incident, such as the Costa Concordia one [5].

Furthermore, a limited number of interviews were

conducted with professionals of the Cruise industry

217

where they shared their personal views and their

reactions in relation to the current hazards and

difficulties experienced amidst muster and evacuation

procedures undergone during simulations and

training [4]. Such difficulties pertaining to passenger

compliance and passenger management on behalf of

the crew, and their ability to remain calm in such

situations, and not to be overwhelmed by the natural

instinct of self-preservation were raised [10].

The proposed Automated Lifeboat Manifesting

Embarkation System (ALMES) is aiming to alleviate a

certain number of issues created by the existing

evacuation methods and promote innovation in a field

that is considered as quite mature. ALMES aims to

remove as much as possible the various errors by

reducing the human involvement in the abandoning

procedure and consequently eliminating potential

mistakes and misconducts. Based on the proposed

technology features, large concentrations of people,

elevated anxiety and stress levels and the confusion

created by them to both crew and passengers will be

drastically reduced.

Moreover, all the miscommunication created by

the verbal accounting of passengers and crew will be

totally removed, as everything will be done

electronically/automatically. Furthermore, due to the

inability of many passengers to make way to their

allotted muster stations ALMES would allow them to

be properly accounted for in the case they are

embarked on different of their “ordinary assigned”

lifeboat. In order to safeguard passengers, a further

advantage of implementing RFID/ NFC technology is

that it shall be a requirement that individuals will be

unable to remove their bracelets until their final

disembarkation, to reassure that no passenger will

forget to carry their identification at any time.

The further development of this project and

manufacturing of the proposed device will enable for

the automatic manifestation of passengers while

embarking the lifeboat through low-range NFC or

RFID technologies. These devices have been proven as

accurate and cost-effective devices with the ability to

seamlessly track and count individual data of

hundreds of passengers who pass through the

designated sensors [21]. At the same time, the relevant

data could be presented not only to the lifeboat

leader/commander via a designated for each lifeboat

electronic tablet device, but also to a monitor located

on the ship’s Bridge. This will allow the Master to

have an overview of the evacuation procedure in real-

time without having to verify information with the

persons involved with the conduct of the evacuation

and add extra pressure to the intense situation they

face.

Moreover, the ALMES will be capable of creating a

backup of the passenger information carried on every

lifeboat, storing the cumulative list in a solid state

drive kept aboard the lifeboat, but also to store the

data in the vessel's VDR and also “directly” transmit

the relevant information to the nearest MRCC. In this

way the authorities ashore will have a clear overview

of the possible remaining passengers on-board and be

able to solely focus their efforts on salvaging them

from an early time, without having to search blindly

or waiting until they have an accurate countdown of

the passengers that have abandoned the vessel.

Furthermore, the evacuation of vessels will become

easier and more time efficient as the passengers will

need just to enter the lifeboat without having to

assemble at the Muster Stations in order to be

manifested prior embarkation, thus valuable and vital

time will be spared, but also the crew and the

passengers will feel more safe and at ease knowing

that a system containing all the necessary information

about them exists on-board and the only thing that

should be done is to board the lifeboats and launch

them. ALMES can really help to increase the safety of

both crew and passengers during an evacuation.

In the past decade, the maritime industry has been

associated with a multitude of evacuation missteps,

due to either the aspect of human error or

unaccountability and unmanageability of passengers

and crew [2]. It has been observed mainly in the Costa

Concordia and similar maritime incidents that the

idea of effective passenger management is almost

unachievable, considering the input from external

factors due to panic, human error, and unforeseen

influential factors (e.g. stress, fatigue, anxiety, external

pressures brought on by passengers, etc.) [10].

This proposal is putting forward the development

of the ALMES, which will allow for the facilitation of

seamless passenger and crew disembarkation during

an evacuation. It can pave the way for the reduction of

personnel error and for more appropriate and

accurate accumulation in regards to the manifestation

of passengers during the boarding of lifeboats.

Human error is kind of unavoidable and inevitable in

the conduct of ship operations, with the casualty rate

in an abandon-ship situation rising because of panic

and the instinct of self-preservation. With the

implementation of a digitalised system, a decrease in

casualty rates is probable, by reducing the relevant

embarkation and evacuation times. Reducing the

probability of wrong decisions and actions is an

additional benefit [13]. Furthermore, in recent years

there has been an expansion of RFID and NFC

implementation aboard vessels [15]; expansion of that

use into the realm of LSAs should also be considered.

3 OBJECTIVES:

Since cruise vessels are designed to transport a large

number of persons, who are not trained and do not

have efficient experience in evacuation procedures, it

should be understandable that the possibilities of

panic reactions, miscommunication, etc. are quite

high. Extreme reactions might not be associated only

with passengers and their lack of training, but it is

inevitable that these inconsistencies could involve the

crew members as well. As the crew is also susceptible

to primal human instinct in times of severe anxiety

and immense stress, it is natural that the feeling of

self-preservation could dominate and consequently

prevent them from acting rationally and perform their

duties efficiently, even though they have repeatedly

undergone the relevant training drills.

Confusion created during an evacuation is often

immense, making the task extremely lengthy and

many times ineffective. This has been recorded in

many cases, with a quite recent example being Costa

218

Concordia, where (in combination with rather poor

decision making and leadership by the Captain) the

evacuation of the vessel lasted more than 6 hours [7],

instead of 30 minutes as per SOLAS regulations [9].

The mass concentration of passengers, their effective

management and manifestation are factors that can

complicate further an already difficult situation for

the crew. ALMES aims to provide a solution to that

and proposes a cutting edge solution that will

facilitate a safer, more efficient and seamless lifeboat

embarkation in the unlucky event of an evacuation.

Furthermore, it is based on the wider utilization of

technologies already existing in the cruise industry in

order to construct a system that will assist both

passengers and crew in difficult situations.

Due to no strict guideline implementation on

passenger manifestation by SOLAS during mustering

and lifeboat embarkation procedures, this process

varies vastly between cruise line operators. Currently,

there are multiple methods performed during an

event of evacuation. The first and most commonly

used practice is the verbal passenger counting, with

the muster station leader reading from a paper

passenger manifest and relaying these results to the

ship's master. Secondly and more commonly

implemented on newer cruise vessels is the use of

portable computers or electronic tablets stored on the

bridge under normal circumstances, which must be

retrieved first by the station leader/commander

during an event of evacuation.

These devices are linked to an interconnected on-

board network, which displays digital manifests

allowing evacuation leaders to relay passenger

information and their health condition to the bridge

via the on-board network. Although this platform has

really improved the evacuation process, it still

implemented via the use of verbal passenger

manifestation, thus allowing for the possible

accumulation of error much as the previous one

explained method. Thirdly, the most technologically

advance evacuation practice so far, which is mostly

used in some major Cruise Lines such as Celebrity

Cruises and Royal Caribbean is the manifestation of

passengers using handheld scanners that are operated

by the appointed crew members.

In this evacuation method the passengers are

supposed to carry all time their cabin card, which

contains their personal data and information; in case

of abandonment, when mustering at the designated

station, the appointed crew member is scanning the

card and the passengers are proceeding to the lifeboat

embarkation, while the Master is overseeing this

procedure from a monitor on the Bridge [4]. This

method, although it is true that it has somehow

reduced the evacuation times, still has disadvantages.

First of all, it is quite unlikely that in case of

evacuation all the passengers will be able to remember

carrying their card with them, especially when they

are under extreme panic and anxiety pressure.

Furthermore, the huge concentration of passengers at

the Muster Stations is still creating extra pressure on

the boat commanders and crew members responsible

for the vessel’s evacuation, who many times feel

disoriented and cannot perform their duties

efficiently.

4 ISSUES IN SHIP EVACUATION:

It is clear by now that the manifestation of passengers

at muster stations is a flawed and inefficient

procedure. The passenger accounting during these

events is completed in two ways, first being that of a

roll call; a process that is not only lengthy and time

consuming, but often inaccurate and expedited due to

panic and confusion built upon by the mass

concentrations of individuals around the embarkation

points. Secondly is the manual scanning of each

passenger and crews access card, by handheld devices

carried by a Muster Station leader which are stowed

in the bridge prior to the abandon ship order. These

devices are not stowed in proximity of the muster

points and the human congestion adds extra steps and

allows for further possibilities of miscount and error.

During times of high stress and anxiety many

passengers do not proceed to their preassigned

Muster Station, as a result many inaccuracies come

about in regards to proper manifestation, leading to

falsely reported manifest numbers.

All seafarers and especially the Officers joining a

vessel have undergone multiple training courses,

seminars and personnel management programmes in

order to ensure safe, efficient, and smooth

coordination of crew and passengers during

emergency events as per SOLAS Ch. 3 Reg. 19 [9].

Nevertheless, in most cases of maritime casualties

those trained and well-experienced individuals have

been unable to cope with the panic, emotionally, and

mentally challenging conditions resulting in the loss

of multiple human lives. The tragic event of Costa

Concordia can be considered as one of the most recent

and prominent examples of human error and inability

of crew to leadership in an abandoned ship situation

that lead to the loss of 32 lives, sentencing not only the

Master but also several crew members to prison [20].

In data presented by Lee, Kim, Park and Park (2003), it

is apparent that unlike the mustering process, human

organisation is far less regulated in the embarkation

process due to panic and uncertainty on behalf of the

passengers. A further example of human error on

behalf of the passengers and crew can be seen in the

1995 abandoning ship of the St. Malo, that took one

hour and eight minutes in fair seas and weather

conditions, while previously under drill

circumstances the crew managed to achieve just eight

minutes [14].

Many human error assessments have been

conducted in the realm of abandon ship, displaying

that Human Error Probability (HEP) is one of the

leading causes in ineffective lifeboat embarkation [2].

Through these studies it has become evident that the

implementation of RFID and NFC can greatly enhance

the efficiency of the mustering and embarkation

process. These passenger data tracking systems as

demonstrated [16], indicate a “substantial reduction in

the number of incidents that pose a security risk, as

well as a more efficient management of resources.”

These findings can be further improved via

experimental validation and predicting passenger

behaviour models, which would highlight evacuation

routes, choices, and any other associated actions of

passengers. monitored through an IR field. Based on

supported models it has been proven that during an

evacuation event, while many passengers due to

219

frustration, panic, and inefficient knowledge of the

vessel, feel disoriented and unable to find the exit to

muster stations. The crew based on that closed circuit

RFID/NFC system could effectively detect the exact

position of individuals throughout the spaces of the

vessel and guide them to their Muster Stations,

knowing also their personal data.

5 PROPOSED APPROACH DESCRIPTION:

With the current implementation of RFID

technologies aboard vessels from crew and passenger

location analysis and the use of such technologies in

regards to payment and cabin access, it has become

evident that the utilisation of this technical

infrastructure is highly possible due to their

widespread acceptance throughout the cruise

industry. Currently vessels under MSC, Carnival, and

Royal Caribbean Cruise Lines have been utilising this

technology through both RFID/ NFC cards and

bracelets [16]. Under the proposed ALMES system

(explained via figures 1, 2 and 3), bracelets will be the

proprietary components within the system’s

application, due to their nature of always being on the

body of the person throughout their time on-board the

vessel. The basic structure of ALMES will contain the

following features:

1 1. RFID/NFC bracelets containing the carrier’s

personal information.

2 2. RFID/ NFC sensors mounted on both sides of the

embarkation doors of the lifeboats.

3 3. Tablets connected to the sensors with an

application responsible for manifesting every

passenger passing through the sensors.

4 4. Transmission system mounted on each lifeboat,

responsible for sending the lifeboat’s passenger

information and number to the closest MRCC,

upon the launch of each lifeboat.

5 5. Bridge monitor and backup device connected to

the Emergency Generator and to additional

external batteries that will oversee the progress of

evacuation and embarkation condition of all

lifeboats and will give to the Master a general

overview of the whole procedure.

6 6. Connection to the VDR of the vessel, where all

the numbers and the names of the passengers will

be also stored.

The above mentioned components will be

designed in order to conform with SOLAS Ch.3 Reg. 4

[9] and the testing guidelines set forth by that

framework. With the proposed system being able to

manifest each passenger and crew member by their

personal information stored on each bracelet (while

passing through the sensors of lifeboats), ALMES will

be able to retrieve all the necessary information and

store it locally on-board the lifeboat’s tablet based

system, as well as it will be able to transmitted

through a satellite based network (i.e. Inmarsat or

Iridium), allowing for the manifest information to be

directly forwarded to local MRCCs (Maritime Rescue

Coordination Centres) upon the launch of each

lifeboat.

Figure 1. Evacuation Manifesting Under the ALMES Approach (Created by the authors)

Figure 2. Evacuation and Manifesting Under Traditional Methods (Created by the authors)

220

Figure 3. Current Proposal in Terms of Technical Infrastructure (Created by the authors)

In this way, the MRCCs will have a clear overview

of the (possible) remaining passengers on-board and

will have to solely focus their efforts on salvaging

them from an early time, without having to search

blindly or waiting until they have an accurate

countdown of the passengers that have abandoned

the vessel. Furthermore, the evacuation of vessels will

become easier and more time efficient as the

passengers will need just to enter the lifeboat without

having to assemble at the Muster Stations in order to

be manifested prior embarkation, thus valuable/vital

time will be spared, but also the crew and the

passengers will feel more safe and at ease knowing

that a system containing all the necessary information

about them exists on-board and the only thing that

should be done is just to board the lifeboats and then

to simply launch them. All the abandoning

procedures will be overseen by the Master from the

Bridge who will have a general overview of the

abandoning procedure via a monitor presenting the

progress of evacuation and allowing him also to

intervene effectively in case he spots possible delays.

Finally, all this information will be additionally

stored to the VDR of the vessel, and it could be

extracted after the incident and examined in case of a

possible investigation. The overall objective of

ALMES is to allow for the quick and efficient transfer

of information of the passengers and crew details in

the case of emergency and hasten the boarding of the

lifeboats. An additional aim is to bring down the

possibility of life loss as well as any mismanagement

on behalf of the crew, by removing strenuous aspects

of the human element and at the same time

streamlining the conduct of rescue operations.

6 COMPARATIVE SYSTEMS

Recently, technologies such as NFC and RFID are

becoming more integrated into the global supply

chain; this has driven the costs of such devices down

and therefore making them more viable for their

implementation within the maritime industry. We

have seen their growth in popularity in crew

management and location during every day working

conditions, these systems such as IDENTEC

SOLUTION’s Crew Companion system which has

allowed for the real time monitoring of personnel

within the working environment, from offshore

platforms to commercial maritime operations.

Furthermore, the Lynceus2Market project has

expounded this concept and its further application

during emergency scenarios [1].

With the very effective tracking of crew and

passengers during events like abandoning ship

and/or in the case of man overboard, this new

technology application will allow the real time

monitoring of individuals from the bridge and their

location to be managed before they even begin the

disembarkation process. Though it is apparent that

these systems do not account for the boarding of the

respective LSAs, the manifestation of passengers, and

the transmission of the data to local MRCCS will be

clearly facilitated.

7 CONCLUSION

Presently there are numerous indisputable issues

troubling the cruise industry in the domain of

passenger management and lifeboat embarkation

[22]. These include the current inability to meet the

required SOLAS guidelines describing ship

evacuation times under realistic conditions [7].

Furthermore, it has been identified that the

transmission of manifest specifics to the relative

agencies can be vastly improved. Research has found

that the exploitation of RFID technologies in cruise

ship operations relating to on-board transactions and

passenger movement can be further extended into the

realm of LSAs [16].

As RFID/ NFC technologies are expected to

expand further in the coming years, it makes sense to

predict that the ALMES has the potential to be widely

implemented within the cruise industry. It is

expected that the potential introduction of ALMES

on-board vessels will facilitate changes and

improvements in the topics of passenger and crew

management in order to further meet current SOLAS

guidelines and to expedite ship evacuation times. A

more precise estimation of the cost to fully develop

221

this system is part of future research. However, it is

clear that the adoption of ALMES could be beneficial

for reducing those panic, stress and anxiety levels that

are existent in ship abandoning situations through

reduction of the human error. It is also expected that

within a timeframe of less than three years it is quite

probable that the ALMES will have successfully

passed all the necessary tests and evaluations related

with the “proof of concept” and therefore allowing

for the complete development and deployment of this

system on-board seagoing vessels, further improving

the level of safety and helping to preserve lifes at sea.

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