701

1 INTRODUCTION

All types of watercrafts are moving faster through

water when their underwater part of hull is free from

marine fouling. Sea animals, plants and

microorganisms attach themselves to the surface of

the underwater craft creating friction that decreases

the speed of a boat, manoeuvrability and increases

fuel consumption. Antifouling paint used for pleasure

boats is a relevant source of toxic substance emission

into the aquatic environment.

Nautical tourism is an important economic activity

for the Republic of Croatia. With its advantageous

location and natural attractions Croatia has always

been an important tourist destination, especially for

many EU countries in the Central and Eastern Europe.

Because of its geographical position it represents the

closest access to the Adriatic Sea and warm and

crystal-clear sea. Croatia has a total of 1,244 islands,

islets, cliffs and reefs scattered all along its coastline,

which is the main rea-son why it has been attractive

for a large number of pleasure boats. The coastal

ecosystems are especially important for the well-being

of the Adriatic Sea because they function as

spawning, nursery and feeding grounds for a wide

range of marine organ-isms. Also, marine

environments and coastal areas are very important for

human recreation and various kinds of outdoor

activities. Leisure boating is a popular recreational

activity on the Adriatic coast and islands. According

to the data [3], Croatia has about 17,000 berths

equipped for sailing boats and yachts and about 5,500

positions on dry land, boat storage.

A great number of boat owners are applying anti-

fouling paints which contain biocides, primarily be-

cause of the reasonable price. These paints contain

Effect of Antifouling Paints and Nautical Tourism on

the Sustainability of Marine Environment in the Case of

the Village Ports of a Small Island

R. Ivče,

D. Paparić, A. Zekić & M. Škapul

University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia

ABSTRACT: The problem of underwater hull fouling has been mostly noticed by the pleasure boat owners

when reducing the boat speed. In order to decrease the fouling of the underwater part of the hull, antifouling

paints have been used. Some kinds of antifouling paints have become a serious environmental problem due to

its very harmful effect on marine organisms and also, indirectly, on humans. Scientific research conducted in

this domain has confirmed contamination by toxic compounds as a result of the usage of antifouling paints

over long period of time. The paper is focused on underwater hull maintenance, especially when applying

antifouling systems on pleasure crafts owned by tourists and local residents, in the example of the village ports

of a small island. A survey was conducted among the residents who use ports to determine their knowledge

regarding the harmful effects of biocidal coatings and the possible harmless maintenance of the underwater

hull part. This paper aims to indicate the necessary equipment and procedures in the two small local ports in

order to maintain pleasure boats in environmentally acceptable manner.

http://www.transnav.eu

the International Journal

on Marine N

avigation

and Safety of Sea Transportation

Volume 14

Number 3

September 2020

DOI: 10.12716/1001.14.03.24

702

toxic heavy metals such as copper and zinc and are

designed to erode. The slow process of leaching of

biocidal heavy metals into the marine environment

causes serious problems. High concentrations of these

toxic elements have been measured in the are-as with

intense boat traffic, but biocides also spread into the

sea during maintenance work, when a boat's hull is

just washed or scraped.

Over the history a variety of methods have been

used to prevent marine fouling, e.g. pitch, tar, and

copper. An early record noted a mixture in use

around 412 B.C. composed of arsenic and sulphur,

mixed with natural oil and applied to a ship's hull [9].

Many other examples could be noted, from the tar

and wax of the ancient Greek boats to the various

compositions used on the wooden sheathing in the

18th century. The first antifouling paints emerged in

the mid-19th century and were based on the idea of

dispersing a powerful toxicant in a polymeric binder.

These were followed by other paints with binders

based on different bituminous products and natural

resins whose dilution was achieved with turpentine

spirit, benzene or naphtha [4]. The cost-effective anti-

fouling paints using metallic com-pounds, in

particular the organotin compound tributyltin (TBT),

were first applied during the 1960's. The continuous

use of the antifouling paints adds to the spread of

harmful biocides in the coastal eco-system and

increases the load of hazardous sub-stances in

sediments and soils, especially in harbour areas and

boatyards where the majority of the maintenance

work is performed [1]. The use of toxic antifouling

paints has appeared as one of the highest

environmental risks to the coastal ecosystems,

especially for small closed bays.

The paper is focused on underwater hull

maintenance, especially when applying antifouling

systems on recreational crafts owned by tourists and

local residents in the example of a smaller island

village. The village considered has two bays with

local ports. During the summer season residents and

tourists use these ports for berthing mostly

recreational crafts. A survey was conducted among

the residents which have had berthed boats in the

port. With the help of the conducted survey authors

in-tend to determine their knowledge regarding the

harmful effects of biocidal coatings and their desire to

maintain the underwater part of hull in a harm-less

manner.

The authors of this paper indicate the necessary

equipment for the two small local ports with boat

wash area, which is designed to collect and

adequately process all the wash water of the

underwater part of a boat. The additional reason for

this re-search is the need to better inform boat owners

and other stakeholders about potentially safer

alternatives for conventional antifouling systems.

Safer alternatives will help preserve environment. The

authors also try to point out the procedures to raise

the level of environmental protection.

2 MARINE BIOFOULING AND PROTECTION

When an artificial structure is placed in seawater,

fouling starts to occur very soon and vegetal and

animal species start causing grave technical and

economic problems [10]. In the case of pleasure boats

biofouling produces high frictional resistance and

when combined with additional weight and all things

mentioned, it has great impact on speed and

manoeuvrability and increases fuel consumption by

up to 40%. Pleasure boats are moored most of the time

and only in use for short periods. On the other hand,

long mooring periods result in more fouling than

when they are in regular use and this may in-crease

the need for antifouling treatment.

The International Maritime Organization (IMO)

uses the phrasing ‘antifouling system’, which is de-

fined as ‘a coating, paint, surface treatment, surface or

device that is used on a ship to control or prevent

attachment of unwanted organisms’ [8]. The most

widely used protective method for the prevention of

marine biofouling on boats is antifouling paint.

Biofouling has been recognized as a problem for more

than 2,000 years and in the beginning of the

protection of the underwater hull of a boat lime and

later arsenic were used to provide anti-fouling. Since

the use of the first simple antifouling coatings many

kinds of antifouling methods have been investigated.

The early Phoenicians were the first to use lead and

copper sheets to prevent biofouling on their wooden

boats. By the late 18th and into the 19th century

coatings containing copper, arsenic and mercury were

applied to protect the underwater hull of a boat. Since

the late 20th century organotin compounds and their

derivatives have been widely used as antifouling

coatings because of their eﬀectiveness [6]. Figure 1

gives a general view of the types of antifouling

systems which may be ap-plied for the protection of

the hull of a boat.

Figure 1. A general view of the types of antifouling systems

for the hull of a boat

This overview shows that a variety of alternative

antifouling systems are available for pleasure boats. A

number of these are expected to be safer than biocidal

self-polishing paints. These are:

− various types of hard foul release coatings,

− foul release coatings,

− liquid surface technology,

− ultrasound systems,

− other alternative antifouling systems.

Hard coatings are generally made of epoxies,

polyesters, vinyl esters or ceramic-epoxy com-

pounds, sometimes reinforced with glass flakes. In

general, these coatings are intended to be used in

conjunction with routine cleaning, using either high-

pressure washing in a dry dock or underwater

cleaning with the boat still afloat. Routine and timely

703

cleaning keeps fouling to a minimum and the hull

operating optimally. These coatings are advertised as

‘extremely hard’ and they should have much greater

longevity than conventional silicone coatings –

possibly up to ten years.

Foul release coatings do not contain biocides for

antifouling purposes. They have a smooth surface,

which does not dissolve in water. The characteristic of

this coating is that organisms just fall down when a

boat moves through water at appropriate speed being

unable to attach or it can easily be re-moved when the

boat is lifted out of the water. Most foul release

coatings are based on silicone elastomer,

fluoropolymers or a combination of the two. Silicone

coatings have an ultra-smooth surface which has

slippery and hydrophobic surface [5].

Liquid surface technology is the basis for a newly

developed coating, based on nano-/micro-structured

porous material infused with a lubricating fluid. This

creates a thin, ultra-smooth and slippery liquid layer

that prevents the attachment of organisms.

Ultrasound waves can be used for fouling control.

A small transmitter is placed on the inside of the

boat’s hull and it transmits ultrasonic waves (≈23

kHz). These waves continuously pass through the

boat hull and act as a soundboard, causing

microscopic vibrations.

Other promising alternative antifouling systems

are still being researched and developed, such as UV

light and natural, readily degradable biocides that

stay inside the coating. The antifouling action

happens because of the UV irradiation and causes

DNA damage to marine organisms, thereby pre-

venting biofilm to continue growing up on boat's hull.

The ecosystems of enclosed and shallow seas are

most exposed to contamination of antifouling paints.

Toxic elements enter the water column and remain

there for some time after. They are removed from the

water column by the sea tides, wind and local

currents and settle on the bottom. The problem is

significantly increased by the development of nautical

tourism, which is one of the most profit-able selective

forms of tourist offer and which, considering the

market, can be expected to lead to an increase in

vessel mooring. Therefore, the im-portance of

preventive measurements should also be emphasized

in the case of smaller ports.

3 POSSIBLE ANTIFOULING POLLUTION BY

PLEASURE BOATS IN THE EXAMPLE OF TWO

SMALLER LOCAL PORTS

With its indented coast and numerous bays and

beaches the island of Rab has attracted a large number

of pleasure boats. Only 12 kilometres away from the

town of Rab lies the village of Lopar, otherwise

known as the Sandy Paradise due to numerous

natural sandy beaches. Surrounded by numerous

small islands and islets, Lopar has a lot to offer to

nautical tourists. It has two ports, which lie in two

beautiful bays. Both ports have been used for berth-

ing mainly pleasure boats owned by the local

residents and tourists. Pleasure boats owned or hired

by tourists sail mainly in summer. Some of the

mentioned boats are permanently berthed in ports

entire year, but most of them have a permanent berth

in other marinas. Also, some of them are brought on a

trailer to the ports from where they set out to the sea

and are driven home on a trailer at the end of the

holiday. Pleasure boats owned by the local residents

are usually dry docked for maintenance once a year.

The total number of the leisure boats on permanent

berth in ports located in the village of Lopar is 338.

Boats are divided according to size in certain

categories and are shown in Table 1. Information

regarding boats was collected and sorted out by the

authors.

Table 1. Approximate leaching of toxic elements from Bio-

cide Antifouling Paints (Copper) for boats permanently

berthed in 2019 in the Village of Lopar (both ports).

_______________________________________________

Boat Number Approximate Average Approximate

Category of underwater flux rate total leaching

(Length Boats area (cm2) of per Boat

in m) dissolved Category

Copper (g/day)

(4 µg/cm2/day)

_______________________________________________

<3 6 126,000 4 0.504

3-5 115 3,450,000 4 13.8

5-7 170 7,990,000 4 31.96

7-9 35 3,150,000 4 12.6

9-11 10 1,380,000 4 5.52

11-13 0 4

13-15 2 500,000 4 2

Total 66.384

_______________________________________________

In this case permanently berthed boats are boats

which are berthed in one of the ports in the Village of

Lopar throughout the year. The categories of boats

considered pollute aquatic environment with the

antifouling toxic elements which slowly leach in the

surrounding water and after that fall down to the

bottom and enter the sediment.

Table 1 shows the number of leisure boats which

have been permanently berthed in the ports of Lopar,

their approximate underwater hull surface and the

approximate release of toxic elements. It is assumed

that the underwater part of the boats is protected by

antifouling paints containing copper. Toxic element

leaching was calculated by the average flux rates of

dissolved copper for the hard vinyl and modified

epoxy paints (approximately 4 µg/cm2/day) [7]. Also,

toxic elements have remained in the sediment of

nearby boats. The soil re-search which was done in

similar ports show high concentrations of Cu and Zn.

The measured Pb concentrations were generally lower

than Cu and Zn because most frequent antifouling

paints currently used contain Cu and Zn. Since the

total ban of TBT (tributyltin) in the EU in 2003, Cu has

been the main biocide added to antifouling paints.

Heavy metals are not degradable and their

concentration increases over time. The increasing

number of pleasure boats on berth may lead to

additional over-load of sediment with heavy metals

from antifouling paints.

The underwater hull of pleasure boats is usually

maintained once a year when they are dry docked or

hauled out and stored at plateau near the sea. Usual

maintenance includes removing any marine growth

that has attached to the boat and reapplying the

antifouling paint. Most leisure boats owned by the

704

local residents are dry docked or hauled out in the

late autumn or at the beginning of spring. Having

been applied with a fresh coat of antifouling paint

and with the maintenance carried out, boats are then

berthed in the port. Pleasure boats owned by the

tourists who resided in Lopar are dry docked or

hauled out and after that cleaned at the end of

holiday. Most of them are brought on a trailer by the

owners or left on land at dry marina. For the next

holiday they will set out to the sea again with a fresh

coat of antifouling paint.

Today most boat owners use high pressure water

sprayers to save time and make cleaning more

efficient. They rinse the salt water off and quickly

remove dirt and any marine growth on the boat. Anti-

fouling paint can be washed off in the process as well.

The washed water contains not only dirt and marine

organisms but also metallic and toxic anti-fouling

compounds and that results in the higher levels of

pollutants, which exceed the approved levels. Because

of the short boating season boats owned by tourists

have significant amounts of anti-fouling paint still on

them at the end of the season. Both ports in Lopar do

not have a proper plateau for cleaning boats and the

polluted wash water is often directly run back into the

water or soaks into the ground at the plateau location.

The disturbing fact is that the metallic and toxic

antifouling compounds can be rinsed by heavy

rainwater or washed by extremely high water and

through this process end up in the bottom of the

surrounding sea. This area has been typically

contaminated by significant levels of metals, mostly

Cu and Zn. Paint particles were clearly visible on the

ground at both plateaus at ports in Lopar.

4 ANTIFOULING PAINTS AND SUSTAINABILITY

OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

The life quality in an island village, fishing and many

tourist activities depend on the long-term

sustainability of marine resources and the ecological

health of their supporting ecosystems. The reduction

of potential antifouling pollutants is a significant step

in the protection of the marine environment. Pleasure

boats owned by the village residents or tourists that

cruise the island's coast should sail and be maintained

without adverse impact on the marine environment.

Boat repair and maintenance have been done at their

current locations for many years. Boat owners are,

however, often unaware of the environmental risks

posed by their practices and the wastes that they

generate, in particular the harm caused by the toxic

antifouling paint chips, paint residues containing

heavy metals, acids, oil, hydro-carbons and other

substances with adverse effects on the marine

environment.

The contaminated wash water, which contains

antifouling toxic substances, is often allowed to run

back into the water or soak into the ground at the

plateau where the boat is located on land. This results

in the significant levels of toxic substances being

discharged into the water and the groundwater

harming the marine environment. Gradually, the

discharge of boat bottom wash water (antifouling

paint-contaminated wash water) should be regulated

at the considered ports. The antifouling paint-

contaminated wash water should be required to be

collected in the facility until it can be treated. Wash

water should be collected in a closed holding tank or

container and left standing so that suspended pa-

ticles can settle and be physically separated from the

water. Treatment of the mentioned water will reduce

the amount of antifouling toxic substances. Treated

wastewater meeting required standards may be

disposed of through a sanitary sewer system with

authorization. The contaminated sediment which was

separated from the wash water should be accepted by

a licensed organization for treatment or safe disposal.

In the absence of a licensing facilities for treatments

and disposal, contaminated sediment should be

directed to a landfill lined with an im-permeable liner

to prevent leaching of waste materials into the ground

[2].

Using high pressure washer to clean the

underwater part the hull of a boat has the potential to

create environmental harm. High-pressure water

blasting presents containment problems caused by the

wide dispersion of biological and toxic substances

removed from the boat hull during the cleaning

process. Boats which are not heavily fouled can be

wiped off with a sponge or a scrub pad when hauled

out, which reduces any fouling that happens above

the antifouling paint. Also, boats can be allowed to

dry when hauled out and then sanded prior to the

application of new antifouling paint. In this case it is

recommended to use vacuum blast cleaning ma-

chines with abrasive blast nozzle inside a shroud that

is in tight contact with the work surface. Dust and

abrasives are immediately vacuumed by a powerful

suction unit and piped into a blast material collection

and treatment chamber. It is easier to control and

collect paint particles and dust, but it is very

important to handle the dust carefully and dis-pose of

it properly.

Both local ports need to install a wash water col-

lection area and a treatment system to collect all the

boat antifouling wash water and treat it to prevent or

reduce the amount of antifouling paint residue being

discharged in the environment. Installation of the

collection and treatment systems in the two small

ports in the village of Lopar will present a significant

capital expense for the local community and it will be

supported by the Port Authority. This investment will

be of great importance in the preservation of the

marine environment.

Boat owners should avoid scrubbing or cleaning

the bottom of their boat while in the water because it

can result in discharges of pollutants similar to

bottom wash water. When the opportunity arises,

wiping off the water line of a boat by a sponge or a

scrub pad will reduce any fouling that happens above

the antifouling paint. Tipping engine out of the water

in case a boat is equipped with outboard engine is

also recommended.

Boat owners as well as local port authorities

should be encouraged to become knowledgeable

about antifouling paints and characteristics of non-

biocide antifouling paints or alternative systems. They

need to be educated on the use, advantages and

disadvantages of biocide-free and biocide-containing

antifouling paints. Also, antifouling system with

705

minimum environmental impact should be

recommended. Boat owners with more fouling

problems should be advised how to use low-release

copper paint or biocide-free antifouling paints. Efforts

should be made to make environmentally friendly

products available at local paint shops.

A survey was conducted among the local residents

who use the ports to determine their knowledge of the

harmful effects of biocidal coatings and the harmless

maintenance of the underwater hull.

5 ANALYSIS OF THE CONDUCTED SURVEY

AMONG BOAT OWNERS

The data used for this research was collected in a

questionnaire survey conducted on 50 residents that

have boats sized between 3 and 15 meters. The

questionnaire contained questions about the

respondents’ sex, age, profession, level of education,

size of boat owned, questions regarding how the

respondents maintain their boat and the knowledge of

the respondents regarding the antifouling paint types.

In the end the respondents were asked if they were

willing to help improve taking care of the antifouling

paint.

The survey shows that the majority of the boats in

the mentioned local ports are owned by men (98%)

and just 2% by women. Figure 2 shows the age and

the level of education of the respondents. Most of the

respondents finished high school and they are around

36 years old or older.

Figure 2. Age and level of education of the respondents

After the general questions, the questions were

more oriented towards the way the respondents

maintained the boat. The survey showed that 64% of

the respondents maintain their boats by them-selves

and 23% of them outsource the maintenance to third

parties but under their supervision. The other 13% of

boats are maintained by third parties without the

supervision of the boat owners. Figure 3 shows how

often the respondents take their boats out for

maintenance and at which location the respondents

accommodated their boats for antifouling paint

removal. Most of the respondents answered that they

had taken their boats out for maintenance within 1

year. About (49%) of the respondents dry docked

their boats between 6 and 12 months, 33% less than 6

months while just 14% of the respondents answered

that their boats were dry docked for maintenance

between 12 and 18 months. About 4% of the

respondents did that in the periods which exceed 18

months. The last part of the chart 2 shows the

locations where the respondents maintained their

boats. Because of the fact that the nautical tourism

occurs mostly during the summer season pleasure

boats are mostly taken out of the sea and are stored

on some location on the land at the end of the season.

That explained why 41% of the respondents answered

that they maintain their boats away from the sea.

Many local fishermen on the is-land need their boats

in the water during the whole year. They take their

boats outside on a plateau by the sea for a quick

maintenance and to repaint the antifouling paint and

they can be counted in the group of about 39% of the

respondents who answered that their boats were

maintained on a plateau near the sea. The last group

of about 20% of the respondents answered that their

boats were accommodated on some location near the

sea for maintenance. The local residents who were

usually per-forming maintenance between two weeks

and one month are also part of this group.

Figure 3. Manner of maintenance and location

The main part of the survey shows how the

respondents are informed about the antifouling paint

and its toxic components. The most of the

respondents (59%) replied that they did not pay

attention. Then, the respondents were asked if they

were aware of the fact that certain antifouling paints

contain elements that are not biodegradable and are

as such deposited in the sediment. On this question

about 66% of the respondents answered positively.

Figure 4. The antifouling paint chosen in relation to the

price and the application of paint according to

manufacturer's instructions

Figure 4 above shows the respondents usually buy

the cheapest antifouling. Also, the same graph leads

to the conclusion that the respondents who buy the

antifouling paint based on price (the cheapest) are not

following the instructions given by paint

manufacturer.

At the end of the survey the respondents were

asked if they were willing to help to improve the

standards regarding antifouling treatment by positive

behaviour, if they support setting up education-al

panels in the port area and if they support the

initiative to build up the necessary infrastructure for

boat maintenance in the environmentally acceptable

706

manner. There were more than 95% of positive

answers to these three questions.

The authors suggest that boat owners should be

provided with anti-fouling educational materials

because, as the survey shows, they have not been

aware of the environmental impact of certain anti-

fouling paints. The authors also recommend setting

up posters with educational materials in the ports.

Figure 5 shows a poster which will be positioned at a

few places in the ports.

Figure 5. Antifouling paints and sustainability of marine

environment poster

6 CONCLUSION

The Republic of Croatia has been a very popular

tourist destination and it has been attracting a large

number of pleasure boats. There are about 17,000

equipped berths along the coastline and islands. The

underwater part of the hull of a boat is protected by

antifouling paints which may contain biocides, which

are slowly leaching into the marine environment

causing serious problems. The ecosystems in the ports

and marinas are exposed to the contamination by

antifouling paints the most due to intense boat traffic

and berthed boats. Biocides also spread into the sea

and settle on the bottom during maintenance work

when the hull of a boat is just washed or scraped.

The questionnaire survey was carried out among

boat owners to determine their knowledge regarding

the harmful effects of biocidal coatings in the smaller

local ports of the island of Rab. It was con-ducted on

the sample of 50 residents which have boats berthed

in the local ports in the village of Lo-par. Surveyed

residents have boats whose length spans between 3

and 15 meters. Most respondents (64%) maintain the

boat (including the underwater part of boat) without

outside help. Boats are mainly maintained near the

sea. The marine growth on the underwater part of

ship and the remains of antifouling paints are

removed by water pressure sprayers in most cases.

The washed water contains both marine organisms

and toxic antifouling compounds. As the conducted

survey shows, most of the respondents have taken

their boats out for maintenance within 1 year and they

have significant amounts of antifouling paint still on

them. Both ports considered do not have a proper

plateau for cleaning boats and the polluted wash

water is often directly run back into the water or

soaks into the ground at the plateau location and after

that indirectly reaches the surrounding sea. The

aquatic area and the seabed have been contaminated

with metals, mostly Cu and Zn.

Gradually, the wash water contaminated with

antifouling paint should be regulated in the

considered ports. Contaminated water will be

required to be collected in the facility until it can be

treated. Wash water should be collected in a closed

holding tank or container and left standing so that the

suspended particles can settle and be physically

separated from the water. Because of the

aforementioned rea-son, both local ports will need to

have a wash water collection area installed, as well as

a treatment system which will provide a smaller

amount of anti-fouling paint residue that is being

discharged into the environment.

According to the conducted survey only 55% the

of respondents have been familiarized with the

harmful effects of biocidal antifouling and the process

of decreasing marine biodiversity has been noticed by

not more than 14%. Biocidal antifouling contains no

biodegradable elements, which are de-posited in the

sediment. 66% of the respondents have been familiar

with this fact. It is very important to emphasize that

the respondents usually buy the cheapest antifouling

and the survey also shows that the respondents who

buy the antifouling paint based on price were not

following the instructions and the paint was applied

based on their previous experience.

The last question in the conducted survey shows

that almost all respondents are willing to help to

improve the level of marine environment protections

through positive behaviour, setting up educational

panels and supporting the initiative to build the

necessary infrastructure. The answers to the last three

questions were positive for more than 95% of the

respondents. Therefore, the authors recommend that

the boat owners be provided with antifouling

educational materials to improve the level of marine

environment protection because, as it is evident from

the survey, they have not been aware of the

environmental impact of certain antifouling paints.

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